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Child Development and Entertainment
including factors that impact children with both positive and negative consequences, while focusing on what can contribute to a child's positive growth, including education, as well as mentoring by parents, teachers and other childhood role models.
Childhood Development, Phases that Children Grow Through, along with Childhood Entertainment
YouTube Video: Family & Children's Magic show at the Magic Castle in Los Angeles
Child development refers to the biological, psychological and emotional changes that occur in human beings between birth and the end of adolescence, as the individual progresses from dependency to increasing autonomy.
It is a continuous process with a predictable sequence yet having a unique course for every child. It does not progress at the same rate and each stage is affected by the preceding types of development. Because these developmental changes may be strongly influenced by genetic factors and events during prenatal life, genetics and prenatal development are usually included as part of the study of child development.
Related terms include developmental psychology, referring to development throughout the lifespan, and pediatrics, the branch of medicine relating to the care of children.
Developmental change may occur as a result of genetically-controlled processes known as maturation, or as a result of environmental factors and learning, but most commonly involves an interaction between the two. It may also occur as a result of human nature and our ability to learn from our environment.
There are various definitions of periods in a child's development, since each period is a continuum with individual differences regarding start and ending. Some age-related development periods and examples of defined intervals are:
Promoting child development through parental training, among other factors, promotes excellent rates of child development. Parents play a large role in a child's life, socialization, and development. Having multiple parents can add stability to the child's life and therefore encourage healthy development.
Another influential factor in a child's development is the quality of their care. Child care programs present a critical opportunity for the promotion of child development.
The optimal development of children is considered vital to society and so it is important to understand the social, cognitive, emotional, and educational development of children.
Increased research and interest in this field has resulted in new theories and strategies, with specific regard to practice that promotes development within the school system. In addition there are also some theories that seek to describe a sequence of states that compose child development.
For amplification, click on any of the following:
It is a continuous process with a predictable sequence yet having a unique course for every child. It does not progress at the same rate and each stage is affected by the preceding types of development. Because these developmental changes may be strongly influenced by genetic factors and events during prenatal life, genetics and prenatal development are usually included as part of the study of child development.
Related terms include developmental psychology, referring to development throughout the lifespan, and pediatrics, the branch of medicine relating to the care of children.
Developmental change may occur as a result of genetically-controlled processes known as maturation, or as a result of environmental factors and learning, but most commonly involves an interaction between the two. It may also occur as a result of human nature and our ability to learn from our environment.
There are various definitions of periods in a child's development, since each period is a continuum with individual differences regarding start and ending. Some age-related development periods and examples of defined intervals are:
- newborn (ages 0–4 weeks);
- infant (ages 4 weeks – 1 year);
- toddler (ages 1–3 years);
- preschooler (ages 4–6 years);
- school-aged child (ages 6–13 years);
- adolescent (ages 13–19).
Promoting child development through parental training, among other factors, promotes excellent rates of child development. Parents play a large role in a child's life, socialization, and development. Having multiple parents can add stability to the child's life and therefore encourage healthy development.
Another influential factor in a child's development is the quality of their care. Child care programs present a critical opportunity for the promotion of child development.
The optimal development of children is considered vital to society and so it is important to understand the social, cognitive, emotional, and educational development of children.
Increased research and interest in this field has resulted in new theories and strategies, with specific regard to practice that promotes development within the school system. In addition there are also some theories that seek to describe a sequence of states that compose child development.
For amplification, click on any of the following:
American Movies for Children
YouTube Video of the Movie Trailer for Frozen
Pictured: Montage of Movies made for children
A children's film, or family film, is a film genre that includes children or relates to them in the context of home and family. Children's films are made specifically for children and not necessarily for the general audience, while family films are made for a wider appeal with a general audience in mind. Children's films come in several major forms like realism, fantasy, animation, war, musicals, and literary adaptations.
Psychological Aspect:
Children are born with certain innate biological dispositions as a product of long evolutionary history. This provides an underlying biological framework for what may fascinate a child and also impose limitations on the same.
These can be seen in certain universal features shared in children's films. According to Grodal, films like Finding Nemo (2003), Bambi (1942), or Hayao Miyazaki's Spirited Away (2001) are based on certain strong emotions like fear, that lead to the activation of what Boyer and Lienard called the hazard-precaution system.
This enables the brain to take precautions in case of danger. Children's films such as these explore various topics such as: attachment to parenting agency; the development of friendship; reciprocal relationships between individuals; or deal with the necessity or need in children and young people to explore and to engage in play.
Thus these diverse films deal with certain aspects that are not mere social constructions, but rather emotions relevant to all children and therefore have an appeal to a wider universal audience. While cultural aspects shape how various films are created, these films refer to underlying universal aspects that are innate and biological.
University of Melbourne scholar Timothy Laurie criticizes the emphasis placed on children's innate psychic tendencies, noting that "pedagogical norms have been tirelessly heaped onto children's media,", and that rather than deriving from hardwired biology, " the quality of childhood is more likely shaped by social policy, political oppportunism, pedagogical institutions, and youth-specific market segmentation"
Family Films vs. Children's Films
In both the United States and Europe, the idea of children's films began to gain relative prominence in the 1930s. According to Bazalgette and Staples, the term "family film" is essentially an American expression while "children's film" is considered to be a European expression.
However, the difference between the two terms can be seen in casting methods adopted by American and European films respectively. In American family films, the search for a child protagonist involves casting children that meet a specific criterion or standard for physical appearance.
In contrast, European children's films look to cast children who appear "ordinary". Similarly, in American family films, the adult cast can be composed of well known actors or actresses in an effort to attract a wider audience, presenting narratives from an adult or parental perspective.
This is shown through the casting, content of the plot, editing, and even Mise en scène. According to Bazalgette and Staples, a fine example of a family film is Honey, I Shrunk the Kids (1989), which if it was a European children's film with a similar plot, the title would be Sis, Dad Shrunk Us, explaining that European children's films are told from the child's perspective, portraying the story through the various emotions and experiences of the child.
Because of these differences, American family films are more easily marketable toward domestic and international viewing audiences while European children's films are better received domestically with limited appeal to international audiences.
Children Films for distribution in The United States:
The Walt Disney Company made animated adaptations of Grimms' Fairy Tales before World War II, beginning with Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937). The period immediately before and during World War II saw the release of three significant family films in the U.S. These were Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs by Disney, Gulliver's Travels by Fleischer Studios, and Pinocchio (1940), also by Disney. All of these were loose adaptations of literary sources. During the war, Disney made more family films like Fantasia (1940) and Dumbo (1941).
After the war, Disney continued to make animated features that could be classified as family films given the scope of its content. According to Wojcik, the most important film adaptations of children's literature in the immediate post-World War II period were the motion pictures The Diary of Anne Frank by George Stevens (1959), Treasure Island (1950) by Byron Haskin, and Luigi Comencini’s 1952 motion picture, Heidi.
In the 1960s, motion pictures such as To Kill a Mockingbird (1962) and Oliver! (1968), directed by Carol Reed, portrayed children as naturally innocent.
Other films of the 1960s that involved children include The Sound of Music (1965) by Robert Wise and The Miracle Worker (1962). These were very successful musical motion picture that were in the genre of family films.
Four of the top ten highest-grossing films of the decade were family films: The Sound of Music, One Hundred and One Dalmatians (1961), The Jungle Book (1967), and Mary Poppins.
Hollywood also released motion pictures starring children though these were not commercially successful and they were literary adaptations nonetheless. These include ...And Now Miguel (1966), Doctor Dolittle (1967), and The Learning Tree (1969).
Other family/children films of the decade include:
Children's films in the 1970s from the United States include animated films such as:
The decade also had live action children's films like:
There were also combination live action/animation films such as 1971's Bedknobs and Broomsticks.
This trend of films inspired the 1980s and 1990s productions of classic children's films from America including Beauty and the Beast (1991) and Matilda (1996).
Other important children's films from the U.S. in the late 1970s include Close Encounters of the Third Kind (1977). Live action films like Superman (1978) and Superman II are also important children's and family films. They have been ranked as some of the best family entertainment over the past generation.
American children's and family films of the 1980s include:
Spielberg portrays children realistically, having to cope with issues. This is seen in E.T. the Extra Terrestrial, where the children have to cope with the issues of single parenting and divorce, as well as separation from their father.
Also, in the motion picture Empire of the Sun (1987), the protagonist child Jim Graham has to deal with separation from his parents for years, to the point where he is unable to even remember what his mother looked like. He is wounded not by bullets, but by the madness and cruelty of war and separation from his parents. According to Robin Wood, in their films, Lucas and Spielberg both reconstruct "... the adult spectator as a child ..." or "... an adult who would like to be a child".
The 1970s and 1980s also include several films and their sequels as classics of family films, including: Star Wars (1977) and its sequels The Empire Strikes Back (1980) and Return of the Jedi (1983). Other similar movies and sequels include Robert Zemeckis's film Back to the Future (1985) and its sequels Back to the Future Part II (1989) and Back to the Future Part III (1990).
Other important children's and family films from this period also include
1990s and beyond: "Since the resurgence of Disney feature films with The Little Mermaid (1989)", writes Laurie, "high-budget animations have become part of the Hollywood box office furniture, with phenomenal successes from Pixar Studies, DreamWorks animations and more recently, Blue Sky Studios".
Important animated family films of the 1990s include Disney titles such as:
This decade introduced the modern fairy tale film Edward Scissorhands (1990), depicting an isolated, artificially created young man with human emotions and childlike qualities who is ultimately rejected by society while the female protagonist holds on to his memory.
The 1990s also saw additional live-action family films such as:
And, there were combined live action/animated films such as Casper (1995).
Family films of the 2000s include:
From 2010 to the Present:
In 2010, 7 of the top 10 grossing films fell into this category.
So far, in the 2010s, live-action family films include Alice in Wonderland (2010), and Hugo (2011), directed by Martin Scorsese.
Animated films in this genre include:
The year 2011 included the sequels Kung Fu Panda 2 and Cars 2, as well as The Smurfs.
The next two years would see other successful family/children's films, such as:
In 2014, there were 4 very successful family films:
In 2015, there were a few very popular films:
2016 brought great movies, like Kung Fu Panda 3, Zootopia and many more. It is also revealed that a theatrical My Little Pony film would be released in Fall 2017.
Psychological Aspect:
Children are born with certain innate biological dispositions as a product of long evolutionary history. This provides an underlying biological framework for what may fascinate a child and also impose limitations on the same.
These can be seen in certain universal features shared in children's films. According to Grodal, films like Finding Nemo (2003), Bambi (1942), or Hayao Miyazaki's Spirited Away (2001) are based on certain strong emotions like fear, that lead to the activation of what Boyer and Lienard called the hazard-precaution system.
This enables the brain to take precautions in case of danger. Children's films such as these explore various topics such as: attachment to parenting agency; the development of friendship; reciprocal relationships between individuals; or deal with the necessity or need in children and young people to explore and to engage in play.
Thus these diverse films deal with certain aspects that are not mere social constructions, but rather emotions relevant to all children and therefore have an appeal to a wider universal audience. While cultural aspects shape how various films are created, these films refer to underlying universal aspects that are innate and biological.
University of Melbourne scholar Timothy Laurie criticizes the emphasis placed on children's innate psychic tendencies, noting that "pedagogical norms have been tirelessly heaped onto children's media,", and that rather than deriving from hardwired biology, " the quality of childhood is more likely shaped by social policy, political oppportunism, pedagogical institutions, and youth-specific market segmentation"
Family Films vs. Children's Films
In both the United States and Europe, the idea of children's films began to gain relative prominence in the 1930s. According to Bazalgette and Staples, the term "family film" is essentially an American expression while "children's film" is considered to be a European expression.
However, the difference between the two terms can be seen in casting methods adopted by American and European films respectively. In American family films, the search for a child protagonist involves casting children that meet a specific criterion or standard for physical appearance.
In contrast, European children's films look to cast children who appear "ordinary". Similarly, in American family films, the adult cast can be composed of well known actors or actresses in an effort to attract a wider audience, presenting narratives from an adult or parental perspective.
This is shown through the casting, content of the plot, editing, and even Mise en scène. According to Bazalgette and Staples, a fine example of a family film is Honey, I Shrunk the Kids (1989), which if it was a European children's film with a similar plot, the title would be Sis, Dad Shrunk Us, explaining that European children's films are told from the child's perspective, portraying the story through the various emotions and experiences of the child.
Because of these differences, American family films are more easily marketable toward domestic and international viewing audiences while European children's films are better received domestically with limited appeal to international audiences.
Children Films for distribution in The United States:
The Walt Disney Company made animated adaptations of Grimms' Fairy Tales before World War II, beginning with Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937). The period immediately before and during World War II saw the release of three significant family films in the U.S. These were Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs by Disney, Gulliver's Travels by Fleischer Studios, and Pinocchio (1940), also by Disney. All of these were loose adaptations of literary sources. During the war, Disney made more family films like Fantasia (1940) and Dumbo (1941).
After the war, Disney continued to make animated features that could be classified as family films given the scope of its content. According to Wojcik, the most important film adaptations of children's literature in the immediate post-World War II period were the motion pictures The Diary of Anne Frank by George Stevens (1959), Treasure Island (1950) by Byron Haskin, and Luigi Comencini’s 1952 motion picture, Heidi.
In the 1960s, motion pictures such as To Kill a Mockingbird (1962) and Oliver! (1968), directed by Carol Reed, portrayed children as naturally innocent.
Other films of the 1960s that involved children include The Sound of Music (1965) by Robert Wise and The Miracle Worker (1962). These were very successful musical motion picture that were in the genre of family films.
Four of the top ten highest-grossing films of the decade were family films: The Sound of Music, One Hundred and One Dalmatians (1961), The Jungle Book (1967), and Mary Poppins.
Hollywood also released motion pictures starring children though these were not commercially successful and they were literary adaptations nonetheless. These include ...And Now Miguel (1966), Doctor Dolittle (1967), and The Learning Tree (1969).
Other family/children films of the decade include:
- Pollyanna (1960),
- Swiss Family Robinson (1960),
- In Search of the Castaways (1962),
- The Sword in the Stone (1963),
- That Darn Cat! (1965),
- Up the Down Staircase (1967),
- To Sir, With Love (1967),
- Yours, Mine and Ours (1968),
- and The Parent Trap (1961).
Children's films in the 1970s from the United States include animated films such as:
- The Aristocats (1970),
- Charlotte's Web (1973) (Click Here for YouTube Video of Movie Trailer),
- Robin Hood (1973),
- The Rescuers (1977),
- Pete's Dragon (1977),
- and The Hobbit (1977).
The decade also had live action children's films like:
- Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory (1971) (Click here for YouTube Video of Movie Trailer),
- Sounder (1972),
- Benji (1974),
- Tuck Everlasting (1976),
- The Bad News Bears (1976),
- Freaky Friday (1976),
- A Hero Ain't Nothin' but a Sandwich (1978),
- the divorce drama involving a child Kramer vs Kramer (1978),
- and The Muppet Movie (1979).
There were also combination live action/animation films such as 1971's Bedknobs and Broomsticks.
This trend of films inspired the 1980s and 1990s productions of classic children's films from America including Beauty and the Beast (1991) and Matilda (1996).
Other important children's films from the U.S. in the late 1970s include Close Encounters of the Third Kind (1977). Live action films like Superman (1978) and Superman II are also important children's and family films. They have been ranked as some of the best family entertainment over the past generation.
American children's and family films of the 1980s include:
- Popeye (1980),
- The Fox and the Hound (1981),
- Steven Spielberg's E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial (1982),
- The Great Mouse Detective (1986),
- and The Little Mermaid (1989).
Spielberg portrays children realistically, having to cope with issues. This is seen in E.T. the Extra Terrestrial, where the children have to cope with the issues of single parenting and divorce, as well as separation from their father.
Also, in the motion picture Empire of the Sun (1987), the protagonist child Jim Graham has to deal with separation from his parents for years, to the point where he is unable to even remember what his mother looked like. He is wounded not by bullets, but by the madness and cruelty of war and separation from his parents. According to Robin Wood, in their films, Lucas and Spielberg both reconstruct "... the adult spectator as a child ..." or "... an adult who would like to be a child".
The 1970s and 1980s also include several films and their sequels as classics of family films, including: Star Wars (1977) and its sequels The Empire Strikes Back (1980) and Return of the Jedi (1983). Other similar movies and sequels include Robert Zemeckis's film Back to the Future (1985) and its sequels Back to the Future Part II (1989) and Back to the Future Part III (1990).
Other important children's and family films from this period also include
- Annie (1982),
- Flight of the Navigator (1986),
- The Princess Bride (1987),
- The Land Before Time (1988),
- Who Framed Roger Rabbit (1988) (Click Here for YouTube Video of Movie Trailer)
- and Batman (1989).
1990s and beyond: "Since the resurgence of Disney feature films with The Little Mermaid (1989)", writes Laurie, "high-budget animations have become part of the Hollywood box office furniture, with phenomenal successes from Pixar Studies, DreamWorks animations and more recently, Blue Sky Studios".
Important animated family films of the 1990s include Disney titles such as:
- Beauty and the Beast (1991),
- Aladdin (1992),
- The Lion King (1994) (Click Here for YouTube Video of Movie Trailer)
- Mulan (1998),
- The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1996),
- and the Pixar computer animated films Toy Story (1995), its sequel Toy Story 2 (1999), and A Bug's Life (1998).
This decade introduced the modern fairy tale film Edward Scissorhands (1990), depicting an isolated, artificially created young man with human emotions and childlike qualities who is ultimately rejected by society while the female protagonist holds on to his memory.
The 1990s also saw additional live-action family films such as:
- Back to the Future Part III (1990), which brought the Back to the Future franchise into this decade,
- Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles (1990),
- Home Alone (1990) and its sequel Home Alone 2: Lost in New York (1992),
- Hook (1991),
- Alan & Naomi (1992),
- Jurassic Park (1993),
- Steve Zaillian's Searching for Bobby Fischer (1993),
- Super Mario Bros (film) (1993),
- Mrs. Doubtfire (1993),
- The Flintstones (film) (1994),
- Babe (1995) (Click here for the YouTube Video of the Movie Trailer)
- Jumanji (1995),
- 101 Dalmatians (1996),
- Fly Away Home (1996),
- and October Sky (1999).
And, there were combined live action/animated films such as Casper (1995).
Family films of the 2000s include:
- Dinosaur (2000),
- The Grinch (2000),
- Monsters, Inc. (2001),
- the Ice Age film series (2002–present),
- Finding Nemo (2003) (Click Here for YouTube Video of Movie Trailer)
- Shark Tale (2004),
- Charlie and the Chocolate Factory (2005),
- The Chronicles of Narnia film series (2005–10),
- Cars (2006), and
- Happy Feet (2006) (Click Here for YouTube Video of Movie Trailer)
- The Incredibles (2004),
- Wall-E (2008),
- and Up (2009).
- the Shrek film series (2001–10),
- Madagascar (2005) and its sequel Madagascar: Escape 2 Africa (2008),
- and Kung Fu Panda (2008),
From 2010 to the Present:
In 2010, 7 of the top 10 grossing films fell into this category.
So far, in the 2010s, live-action family films include Alice in Wonderland (2010), and Hugo (2011), directed by Martin Scorsese.
Animated films in this genre include:
- the conclusion to the Toy Story franchise, Toy Story 3 (2010),
- Tangled (2010),
- Despicable Me (2010),
- and How to Train Your Dragon (2010).
The year 2011 included the sequels Kung Fu Panda 2 and Cars 2, as well as The Smurfs.
The next two years would see other successful family/children's films, such as:
- Ice Age: Continental Drift (2012),
- Madagascar 3: Europe's Most Wanted (2012),
- Frozen (2013) (Click Here for YouTube Video of the Movie Trailer)
- Despicable Me 2 (2013),
- and Monsters University (2013).
In 2014, there were 4 very successful family films:
In 2015, there were a few very popular films:
- Disney's live-action adaptation of Cinderella (See YouTube Video of Movie Trailer),
- two Pixar films, Inside Out and The Good Dinosaur,
- the sequel Hotel Transylvania 2 and the Despicable Me spin-off prequel, Minions.
2016 brought great movies, like Kung Fu Panda 3, Zootopia and many more. It is also revealed that a theatrical My Little Pony film would be released in Fall 2017.
Motion Picture Association of America film rating system (MPAA)
Pictured: MPAA Ratings image for a movie that children under 13 years of age should not attend
The Motion Picture Association of America's (MPAA) film-rating system is used in the United States and its territories to rate a film's suitability for certain audiences, based on its content.
The MPAA rating system is a voluntary scheme that is not enforced by law; films can be exhibited without a rating, though many theaters refuse to exhibit non-rated or NC-17 rated films.
Non-members of MPAA may also submit films for rating. Other media (such as television programs and video games) may be rated by other entities.
The MPAA rating system is one of various motion picture rating systems that are used to help parents decide what films are appropriate for their children.
The MPAA's rating system is administered by the Classification & Ratings Administration (CARA), an independent division of the MPAA.
The MPAA rating system is a voluntary scheme that is not enforced by law; films can be exhibited without a rating, though many theaters refuse to exhibit non-rated or NC-17 rated films.
Non-members of MPAA may also submit films for rating. Other media (such as television programs and video games) may be rated by other entities.
The MPAA rating system is one of various motion picture rating systems that are used to help parents decide what films are appropriate for their children.
The MPAA's rating system is administered by the Classification & Ratings Administration (CARA), an independent division of the MPAA.
Children Television Shows, with a focus on TV Networks based in the United States
YouTube Video: SpongeBob SquarePants | ‘SpongeBob LongPants' New Episode - Music Video | Nick
Pictured: LEFT: The Disney Channel; RIGHT: The Cartoon Network
Children's television series are television programs designed for and marketed to children, normally broadcast programming scheduled for broadcast during the morning and afternoon when children are awake. They can sometimes run during the early evening, allowing younger children to watch them after Kindergarten or school. The purpose of the shows is mainly to entertain and sometimes to educate.
Children's television is nearly as old as television itself, with early examples including shows such as:
In the United States, early children's television was often a marketing branch of a larger corporate product, such as Disney, and it rarely contained any educational elements (for instance, The Magic Clown, a popular early children's program, was primarily an advertisement for Bonomo's Turkish taffy product).
This practice continued, albeit in a much toned-down manner, through the 1980s in the United States, when the Federal Communications Commission prohibited tie-in advertising on broadcast television (it does not apply to cable, which is out of the reach of the FCC's content regulations).
Though there is some debate on the intended audience, later non-educational children's television programs included the science fiction programs of Irwin Allen (most notably Lost in Space), the fantasy series of Sid and Marty Krofft, the extensive cartoon empire of Hanna-Barbera and the numerous sitcoms that aired as part of TGIF in the 1990s.
In the United States, Saturday mornings were generally scheduled with cartoon from the 1960s to 1980s as viewership with that programming would pull in 20 million watchers which dropped to 2 million in 2003. In 1992, teen comedies and a "Today" show weekend edition were first to displace the cartoon blocks on NBC.
Starting in September 2002, the networks turned to their affiliated cable cartoon channels or outside programmers for their blocks. The other two Big Three television networks soon did the same. Infomercials replaced the cartoon on Fox in 2008.
The Saturday cartoons were less of a draw due to the various cable cartoon channels (Nickelodeon and Cartoon Network, etc.) being available all week starting in the 1990s. With recordable options becoming more prevalent in the 1990s with Videocassette recorder then its 21st century replacements of DVDs, DVRs and streaming services.
FCC rule changes in the 1990s regarding the E/I programming and limitation on kid-focus advertising made the cartoons less profitable. Another possible contributor is the rising divorce rate and the following children's visitation pushed more "quality time" with the kids instead of TV watching.
On September 27, 2014, the last traditional Saturday network morning cartoon block, Vortexx, ended and was replaced the following week by the syndicated One Magnificent Morning on The CW.
There are three major commercial cable networks in the United States dedicated to children's television. All three also operate secondary services with specialized scopes drawing upon their respective libraries, such as a focus on specific demographics, or a focus upon classic programming that fall within their scope and demographics:
Nickelodeon:
This was the the first children's television channel, launched in 1979 (though its history traces back to the 1977 launch of The Pinwheel Network); suffering from low ratings initially with few shows that attracted a sizeable viewership, it slowly gained in popularity over the course of the 1980s and early 1990s.
It has aired a large variety of programming ranging from educational programs, original animated programming (Nicktoons), live-action sitcoms, game shows, talk shows, dramas and sketch comedies and a late night classic programming block aimed at families, teens and adults (Nick at Nite).
Nickelodeon operates three digital channels separate from the main service: Nick Jr., a channel devoted to preschool programming; TeenNick, which primarily features live-action programming aimed at teenagers and classic Nickelodeon series; and Nicktoons, which primarily (although not exclusively) runs animated programming.
Cartoon Network:
This was launched in 1992, and was perhaps the fastest-growing network aimed primarily at children; thanks to extensive support from sister networks TBS and TNT, it became widely popular within five years of its launch.
Originally only airing classic animation from the archives of Time Warner (which includes productions from Turner Broadcasting System, Warner Bros., MGM and Hanna-Barbera), it began airing its own original animated programming (Cartoon Cartoons) similar in format to those found on Nickelodeon shortly thereafter.
Like Nickelodeon, Cartoon Network has a wide range of demographics ranging from preschoolers to adults. It is credited with a major role in the American Animation Renaissance in the 1990s, bringing animation back into popularity and running many different styles of animation as possible.
It also brought anime into prominence in late 1990s with its Toonami action block and aired late night programming such as the Midnight Run block, ToonHeads and Space Ghost Coast to Coast; the last of these was directed squarely at, and proved to be popular with, older audiences and lead the way for the creation of its young adult late night block Adult Swim in 2001.
Cartoon Network also operates Boomerang, a channel which is oriented primarily towards animated series from the libraries of Warner Bros. and Hanna-Barbera, as well as first-run series based on classic franchises, and past Cartoon Network original series.
Disney Channel:
Launched in 1983, it was initially a premium channel, and did not achieve widespread popularity until it converted into a basic cable service in 1997 (a process that actually began in 1989 with a two-provider test run of the channel as a basic service, with other providers following suit over time until it reached entirely basic carriage by 2004).
It aired programming ranging from classic Disney films and animated shorts, to family-oriented and classic feature films, to original programming aimed at family audiences. In 1997, it changed its format and began airing educational programming for preschoolers in the morning, children's sitcoms and animated series in the afternoon, teen sitcoms, dramas, original movies and music videos during the evening and classic Disney series, films and shorts in late night.
In 2002, it revamped its programming again by dropping its classic Disney programming in favor of airing only series targeted at children. Its content has primarily drifted to live-action sitcoms aimed (primarily) at girls between the ages of 7 and 14.
Disney Channel operates two digital channels separate from the main service: Disney Junior, which launched in 2012 and primarily broadcasts animated series catered towards a preschool audience, and Disney XD, which caters primarily to an older youth audience.
Disney Channel does not have an outlet for its archive programming. Disney also operates Freeform, a channel primarily carrying live-action programming catered towards a teenage/young adult audience. Although its previous incarnations under different owners had family-oriented formats and children's programming, they have since been phased out in favor of series such as teen dramas.
Under current mandates:
All broadcast television stations in the United States, including digital subchannels, must show a minimum of three hours per week of educational children's programming, regardless of format.
As a result, digital multicast networks whose formats should not fit children's programming, such as Live Well Network and TheCoolTV, are required to carry educational programs to fit the FCC mandates.
The transition to digital television has allowed for the debut of whole digital subchannels that air children's programming 24/7; examples include PBS Kids Sprout, Qubo, PBJ, Discovery Family and Smile of a Child TV.
PBS, the United States' main public television network, devotes over eight hours of its weekday schedule, and several hours of its weekend schedule, to educational children's programs.
The country's only directly nationally-operated TV service for public consumption, NASA TV, also includes educational programs in its schedule for use in schools.
See Also:
Children's television is nearly as old as television itself, with early examples including shows such as:
- Captain Tugg,
- The Magic Roundabout,
- Howdy Doody,
- Ivor the Engine,
- Clangers,
- Noggin the Nog,
- Flower Pot Men,
- Captain Kangaroo,
- Sesame Street,
- The Electric Company,
- and Mister Rogers' Neighborhood.
In the United States, early children's television was often a marketing branch of a larger corporate product, such as Disney, and it rarely contained any educational elements (for instance, The Magic Clown, a popular early children's program, was primarily an advertisement for Bonomo's Turkish taffy product).
This practice continued, albeit in a much toned-down manner, through the 1980s in the United States, when the Federal Communications Commission prohibited tie-in advertising on broadcast television (it does not apply to cable, which is out of the reach of the FCC's content regulations).
Though there is some debate on the intended audience, later non-educational children's television programs included the science fiction programs of Irwin Allen (most notably Lost in Space), the fantasy series of Sid and Marty Krofft, the extensive cartoon empire of Hanna-Barbera and the numerous sitcoms that aired as part of TGIF in the 1990s.
In the United States, Saturday mornings were generally scheduled with cartoon from the 1960s to 1980s as viewership with that programming would pull in 20 million watchers which dropped to 2 million in 2003. In 1992, teen comedies and a "Today" show weekend edition were first to displace the cartoon blocks on NBC.
Starting in September 2002, the networks turned to their affiliated cable cartoon channels or outside programmers for their blocks. The other two Big Three television networks soon did the same. Infomercials replaced the cartoon on Fox in 2008.
The Saturday cartoons were less of a draw due to the various cable cartoon channels (Nickelodeon and Cartoon Network, etc.) being available all week starting in the 1990s. With recordable options becoming more prevalent in the 1990s with Videocassette recorder then its 21st century replacements of DVDs, DVRs and streaming services.
FCC rule changes in the 1990s regarding the E/I programming and limitation on kid-focus advertising made the cartoons less profitable. Another possible contributor is the rising divorce rate and the following children's visitation pushed more "quality time" with the kids instead of TV watching.
On September 27, 2014, the last traditional Saturday network morning cartoon block, Vortexx, ended and was replaced the following week by the syndicated One Magnificent Morning on The CW.
There are three major commercial cable networks in the United States dedicated to children's television. All three also operate secondary services with specialized scopes drawing upon their respective libraries, such as a focus on specific demographics, or a focus upon classic programming that fall within their scope and demographics:
Nickelodeon:
This was the the first children's television channel, launched in 1979 (though its history traces back to the 1977 launch of The Pinwheel Network); suffering from low ratings initially with few shows that attracted a sizeable viewership, it slowly gained in popularity over the course of the 1980s and early 1990s.
It has aired a large variety of programming ranging from educational programs, original animated programming (Nicktoons), live-action sitcoms, game shows, talk shows, dramas and sketch comedies and a late night classic programming block aimed at families, teens and adults (Nick at Nite).
Nickelodeon operates three digital channels separate from the main service: Nick Jr., a channel devoted to preschool programming; TeenNick, which primarily features live-action programming aimed at teenagers and classic Nickelodeon series; and Nicktoons, which primarily (although not exclusively) runs animated programming.
Cartoon Network:
This was launched in 1992, and was perhaps the fastest-growing network aimed primarily at children; thanks to extensive support from sister networks TBS and TNT, it became widely popular within five years of its launch.
Originally only airing classic animation from the archives of Time Warner (which includes productions from Turner Broadcasting System, Warner Bros., MGM and Hanna-Barbera), it began airing its own original animated programming (Cartoon Cartoons) similar in format to those found on Nickelodeon shortly thereafter.
Like Nickelodeon, Cartoon Network has a wide range of demographics ranging from preschoolers to adults. It is credited with a major role in the American Animation Renaissance in the 1990s, bringing animation back into popularity and running many different styles of animation as possible.
It also brought anime into prominence in late 1990s with its Toonami action block and aired late night programming such as the Midnight Run block, ToonHeads and Space Ghost Coast to Coast; the last of these was directed squarely at, and proved to be popular with, older audiences and lead the way for the creation of its young adult late night block Adult Swim in 2001.
Cartoon Network also operates Boomerang, a channel which is oriented primarily towards animated series from the libraries of Warner Bros. and Hanna-Barbera, as well as first-run series based on classic franchises, and past Cartoon Network original series.
Disney Channel:
Launched in 1983, it was initially a premium channel, and did not achieve widespread popularity until it converted into a basic cable service in 1997 (a process that actually began in 1989 with a two-provider test run of the channel as a basic service, with other providers following suit over time until it reached entirely basic carriage by 2004).
It aired programming ranging from classic Disney films and animated shorts, to family-oriented and classic feature films, to original programming aimed at family audiences. In 1997, it changed its format and began airing educational programming for preschoolers in the morning, children's sitcoms and animated series in the afternoon, teen sitcoms, dramas, original movies and music videos during the evening and classic Disney series, films and shorts in late night.
In 2002, it revamped its programming again by dropping its classic Disney programming in favor of airing only series targeted at children. Its content has primarily drifted to live-action sitcoms aimed (primarily) at girls between the ages of 7 and 14.
Disney Channel operates two digital channels separate from the main service: Disney Junior, which launched in 2012 and primarily broadcasts animated series catered towards a preschool audience, and Disney XD, which caters primarily to an older youth audience.
Disney Channel does not have an outlet for its archive programming. Disney also operates Freeform, a channel primarily carrying live-action programming catered towards a teenage/young adult audience. Although its previous incarnations under different owners had family-oriented formats and children's programming, they have since been phased out in favor of series such as teen dramas.
Under current mandates:
All broadcast television stations in the United States, including digital subchannels, must show a minimum of three hours per week of educational children's programming, regardless of format.
As a result, digital multicast networks whose formats should not fit children's programming, such as Live Well Network and TheCoolTV, are required to carry educational programs to fit the FCC mandates.
The transition to digital television has allowed for the debut of whole digital subchannels that air children's programming 24/7; examples include PBS Kids Sprout, Qubo, PBJ, Discovery Family and Smile of a Child TV.
PBS, the United States' main public television network, devotes over eight hours of its weekday schedule, and several hours of its weekend schedule, to educational children's programs.
The country's only directly nationally-operated TV service for public consumption, NASA TV, also includes educational programs in its schedule for use in schools.
See Also:
- Nick Jr.
- PBS Kids
- List of local children's television series (United States)
- Saturday-morning cartoon for an in-depth history of children's television in the United States
- Advertising to children
List of Movies based on Comic Books and Comic Strips
YouTube Video: Jack Nicholson as the Joker in Batman (1989)
Pictured: LEFT: Batman (1989); CENTER: The Incredible Hulk (2008); RIGHT: X-Men: Days of Future Past (2014)
Click Here for list of films based on English-language comics, including comic books, graphic novels, and features in anthology comics magazines.
It includes films that are adaptations of English-language comics, and those films whose characters originated in comic books (e.g. Batman is not an adaptation of one particular comic book, but the character first appeared in comic books, not in another medium).
It also includes film serials. It does not include material where the original source is newspaper comic strips, which are featured in the next topic.
Click Here for list of films based on English-language Comic Strips, This is a list of films based on comic strips and characters first appearing in them, including single panel gag cartoons appearing in newspapers and magazines, and web comics. The practice of creating films based on comic strips dates back to the early years of film itself. (However, in recent years, due to advances in special effects, big budget films based on comic books have become more common.)
It includes films that are adaptations of English-language comics, and those films whose characters originated in comic books (e.g. Batman is not an adaptation of one particular comic book, but the character first appeared in comic books, not in another medium).
It also includes film serials. It does not include material where the original source is newspaper comic strips, which are featured in the next topic.
Click Here for list of films based on English-language Comic Strips, This is a list of films based on comic strips and characters first appearing in them, including single panel gag cartoons appearing in newspapers and magazines, and web comics. The practice of creating films based on comic strips dates back to the early years of film itself. (However, in recent years, due to advances in special effects, big budget films based on comic books have become more common.)
TV Shows based on Comic Books and Comic Strips
YouTube Video: from Sabrina the Witch featuring Britney Spears
Pictured: TV Shows based on LEFT: comic books include Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles (1987 Series); RIGHT: comic strips include Garfield and Friends (CBS: 1988-1995)
Click Here for a list of TV Shows based on Comics, including comic books, graphic novels, and features in anthology comics magazines.
Click Here for list of TV Shows based on Comic Strips. For the purposes of this list, a comic strip is a drawing or sequence of drawings that tell a story and were published in newspapers in the "comics" section, most commonly in a panel-high "strip".
Click Here for list of TV Shows based on Comic Strips. For the purposes of this list, a comic strip is a drawing or sequence of drawings that tell a story and were published in newspapers in the "comics" section, most commonly in a panel-high "strip".
TV Parental Guidelines
The TV Parental Guidelines is a television content rating system in the United States that was first proposed on December 19, 1996, by the United States Congress, the television industry and the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), and went into effect by January 1, 1997, on most major broadcast and cable networks in response to public concerns about increasingly explicit sexual content, graphic violence and strong profanity in television programs.
It was established as a voluntary-participation system, with ratings to be determined by the individually participating broadcast and cable networks.
The ratings are generally applied to most television series, television films and edited
broadcast or basic cable versions of theatrically-released films; premium channels also assign ratings from the TV Parental Guidelines on broadcasts of some films that have been released theatrically or on home video, either if the Motion Picture Association of America did not assign a rating for the film or if the channel airs the unrated version of the film.
It was specifically designed to be used with the V-chip, which was mandated to be built into all television sets manufactured since 2000, but the guidelines themselves have no legal force, and are not used on sports or news programs or during commercial advertisements.
Many online television services, such as Hulu, Amazon Video and Netflix also use the Guidelines system, along with digital video vendors such as the iTunes Store and Google Play.
It was established as a voluntary-participation system, with ratings to be determined by the individually participating broadcast and cable networks.
The ratings are generally applied to most television series, television films and edited
broadcast or basic cable versions of theatrically-released films; premium channels also assign ratings from the TV Parental Guidelines on broadcasts of some films that have been released theatrically or on home video, either if the Motion Picture Association of America did not assign a rating for the film or if the channel airs the unrated version of the film.
It was specifically designed to be used with the V-chip, which was mandated to be built into all television sets manufactured since 2000, but the guidelines themselves have no legal force, and are not used on sports or news programs or during commercial advertisements.
Many online television services, such as Hulu, Amazon Video and Netflix also use the Guidelines system, along with digital video vendors such as the iTunes Store and Google Play.
Children's Books made into Movies
YouTube Video from the 2000 Movie Dr. Seuss' How the Grinch Stole Christmas
Pictured: Theatrical Movie Posters for Jumanji (1995); RIGHT: Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets (2002)
Click here for a list of works of children's literature that have been made into feature films.
The title of the work and the year it was published are both followed by the work's author, the title of the film, and the year of the film. If a film has an alternate title based on geographical distribution, the title listed will be that of the widest distribution area.
The title of the work and the year it was published are both followed by the work's author, the title of the film, and the year of the film. If a film has an alternate title based on geographical distribution, the title listed will be that of the widest distribution area.
Children's Books made into Television Shows
YouTube Video Curious George (TV Series) Takes a Job
Pictured: LEFT: Once Upon a Time (ABC: 2001-Present); RIGHT: The Adventures of Raggedy Ann & Andy (CBS: 1988-1990)
Teenage TV Drama Shows, including a List of those airing in the United States
YouTube Video: 10 Memorable Moments of Beverly Hills 90210
Pictured: LEFT: The Facts of Life (NBC: 1979-1988); RIGHT: Beverly Hills, 90210 (Fox: 1990-2010)
Click here for a list of teen dramas broadcast in the United States.
A teen drama is a genre or type of drama series with a major focus on teenage characters. It came into prominence in the early 1990s, especially with the popularity of the Fox series Beverly Hills, 90210.
After 90210 became a success, television writers and producers realized the potential for this new genre to reach out to a previously ignored demographic. In the past, most series that maintained a focus on teenagers had been sitcoms, while adolescents in drama series were usually part of a larger ensemble that included adults and children.
More often than not, teen dramas have soap opera elements, incorporating one or more ongoing story arcs spanning several episodes. The young characters must deal with the dramatic ups and downs of their friendships and romances while facing an array of issues thought to be typical of adolescence.
There have also been many successful teen-based series with major science fiction, fantasy and action/adventure themes.
A teen drama is a genre or type of drama series with a major focus on teenage characters. It came into prominence in the early 1990s, especially with the popularity of the Fox series Beverly Hills, 90210.
After 90210 became a success, television writers and producers realized the potential for this new genre to reach out to a previously ignored demographic. In the past, most series that maintained a focus on teenagers had been sitcoms, while adolescents in drama series were usually part of a larger ensemble that included adults and children.
More often than not, teen dramas have soap opera elements, incorporating one or more ongoing story arcs spanning several episodes. The young characters must deal with the dramatic ups and downs of their friendships and romances while facing an array of issues thought to be typical of adolescence.
There have also been many successful teen-based series with major science fiction, fantasy and action/adventure themes.
Teenage TV Sitcom Series, including a list of those televised in the United States
YouTube Video: The Wonder Years Pilot- Opening Scenes & PE Coach Cutlip - 1988*
* -- Wonder Years (ABC: 1988-1993)
Pictured: LEFT: “Boy Meets World” (ABC: 1993-2000); RIGHT: “Full House” (ABC: 1987-1995)
Click here for a listing of Situation Comedy ("Sitcom") shows televised in the United States.
A teen situation comedy, or teen sitcom, is a subgenre of comedic television programs targeted towards preteens and teenagers.
In general, these type of programs focus primarily on characters between 12 and 19 years of age and routinely feature characters involved in humorous situations (either realistic or fantasy in style, depending on the program's plotline), and often focus on the characters' family and social lives.
The primary plot of each episode often involves the lead character(s) that the program centers on, while secondary plotlines often focus on the character(s') parents, siblings (assuming the main character has any and they are not one of the leads) or friends – although the secondary characters may also or instead be involved in the episode's main plot.
The most common episodic plot lines used in teen sitcoms involve the lead characters dealing with family and friends, ending up in a complicated situation (such as accepting two date invitations) that the characters must solve by episode's end, getting into moral conflicts with their parents (or sometimes, friends, relatives or siblings), and coming-of-age situations (such as a first date or learning how to drive).
However plots that are more dramatic, centering on social issues (such as bullying, peer pressure, underage drinking or drug use), occasionally are used in the form of a "very special episode".
Although adolescents are the main audience focus for these programs, these programs are also popular with young adults as well as preteens. Older adults may enjoy them for nostalgic purposes. Like teen dramas, this genre was also generally non-existent during the first 30 years of television.
A teen situation comedy, or teen sitcom, is a subgenre of comedic television programs targeted towards preteens and teenagers.
In general, these type of programs focus primarily on characters between 12 and 19 years of age and routinely feature characters involved in humorous situations (either realistic or fantasy in style, depending on the program's plotline), and often focus on the characters' family and social lives.
The primary plot of each episode often involves the lead character(s) that the program centers on, while secondary plotlines often focus on the character(s') parents, siblings (assuming the main character has any and they are not one of the leads) or friends – although the secondary characters may also or instead be involved in the episode's main plot.
The most common episodic plot lines used in teen sitcoms involve the lead characters dealing with family and friends, ending up in a complicated situation (such as accepting two date invitations) that the characters must solve by episode's end, getting into moral conflicts with their parents (or sometimes, friends, relatives or siblings), and coming-of-age situations (such as a first date or learning how to drive).
However plots that are more dramatic, centering on social issues (such as bullying, peer pressure, underage drinking or drug use), occasionally are used in the form of a "very special episode".
Although adolescents are the main audience focus for these programs, these programs are also popular with young adults as well as preteens. Older adults may enjoy them for nostalgic purposes. Like teen dramas, this genre was also generally non-existent during the first 30 years of television.
Comic Books including a list of American Comic Books
Pictured: Comic book covers from LEFT: Archie Comics; RIGHT: Wonder Woman (DC Comics)
Click here for a list of comic books published in North America.
A comic book or comicbook, also called comic magazine or simply comic, is a publication that consists of comic art in the form of sequential juxtaposed panels that represent individual scenes.
Panels are often accompanied by brief descriptive prose and written narrative, usually dialog contained in word balloons emblematic of the comics art form. Although comics has some origins in 18th century Japan and 1830s Europe, comic books were first popularized in the United States during the 1930s.
The first modern comic book, Famous Funnies, was released in the United States in 1933 and was a reprinting of earlier newspaper humor comic strips, which had established many of the story-telling devices used in comics. The term comic book derives from American comic books once being a compilation of comic strips of a humorous tone; however, this practice was replaced by featuring stories of all genres, usually not humorous in tone.
A comic book or comicbook, also called comic magazine or simply comic, is a publication that consists of comic art in the form of sequential juxtaposed panels that represent individual scenes.
Panels are often accompanied by brief descriptive prose and written narrative, usually dialog contained in word balloons emblematic of the comics art form. Although comics has some origins in 18th century Japan and 1830s Europe, comic books were first popularized in the United States during the 1930s.
The first modern comic book, Famous Funnies, was released in the United States in 1933 and was a reprinting of earlier newspaper humor comic strips, which had established many of the story-telling devices used in comics. The term comic book derives from American comic books once being a compilation of comic strips of a humorous tone; however, this practice was replaced by featuring stories of all genres, usually not humorous in tone.
Comic Book Convention including a List of Conventions
YouTube Video: Watch Comic-Con 2017 (The Big Bang Theory TV Show) Panel
Pictured: From the 2016 Long Beach (CA) Comic Con
Click here for a list of Comic Book Conventions.
A comic book convention or comic-con is an event with a primary focus on comic books and comic book culture, in which comic book fans gather to meet creators, experts, and each other.
Commonly, comic conventions are multi-day events hosted at convention centers, hotels, or college campuses. They feature a wide variety of activities and panels, with a larger number of attendees participating in cosplay than most other types of fan conventions. Comic book conventions are also used as a vehicle for industry, in which publishers, distributors, and retailers represent their comic-related releases. Comic book conventions may be considered derivatives of science-fiction conventions, which began in the late 1930s.
Comic-cons were traditionally organized by fans on a not-for-profit basis, though nowadays most events catering to fans are run by commercial interests for profit. Many conventions have award presentations relating to comics (such as the Eisner Awards, which have been presented at San Diego Comic-Con International since 1988; or the Harvey Awards, which have been presented at a variety of venues also since 1988).
At commercial events, comic book creators often give out autographs to the fans, sometimes in exchange for a flat appearance fee, and sometimes may draw illustrations for a per-item fee. Commercial conventions are usually quite expensive and are hosted in hotels. This represents a change in comic book conventions, which traditionally were more oriented toward comic books as a mode of literature, and maintained a less caste-like differentiation between professional and fan.
The first official comic book convention was held in 1964 in New York City. Early conventions were small affairs, usually organized by local enthusiasts (such as Jerry Bails, later known as the "Father of Comic Fandom", and Dave Kaler of the Academy of Comic-Book Fans and Collectors), and featuring a handful of industry guests.
The first recurring conventions were the Detroit Triple Fan Fair, which ran from 1965–1978, and Academy Con, which ran from 1965–1967. Many recurring conventions begin as single-day events in small venues, which as they grow more popular expand to two days, or even three or more every year. Many comic-cons which had their start in church basements or union halls now fill convention centers in major cities.
Nowadays, comic conventions are big business, with recurring shows in every major American city. Comic book conventions in name only, the biggest shows include a large range of pop culture and entertainment elements across virtually all genres, including horror, animation, anime, manga, toys, collectible card games, video games, webcomics, and fantasy novels.
Wizard Entertainment is the industry leader in these types of conventions, with ongoing shows in 21 American cities. San Diego Comic-Con International, a multi-genre entertainment and comic convention held annually in San Diego since 1970, is the standard bearer for U.S. comic-cons. According to Forbes, the convention is the "largest convention of its kind in the world;" and is also the largest convention held in San Diego. According to the San Diego Convention and Visitor's Bureau, the convention has an annual regional economic impact of $162.8 million, with a $180 million economic impact in 2011.
Internationally, the largest European comic book festivals are Lucca Comics & Games (first held in 1965) and the Angoulême International Comics Festival (first staged in 1974). The world's largest comic book convention, in terms of attendees, is Japan's Comiket (first held in 1975), which boasts annual attendance of over half a million people.
A comic book convention or comic-con is an event with a primary focus on comic books and comic book culture, in which comic book fans gather to meet creators, experts, and each other.
Commonly, comic conventions are multi-day events hosted at convention centers, hotels, or college campuses. They feature a wide variety of activities and panels, with a larger number of attendees participating in cosplay than most other types of fan conventions. Comic book conventions are also used as a vehicle for industry, in which publishers, distributors, and retailers represent their comic-related releases. Comic book conventions may be considered derivatives of science-fiction conventions, which began in the late 1930s.
Comic-cons were traditionally organized by fans on a not-for-profit basis, though nowadays most events catering to fans are run by commercial interests for profit. Many conventions have award presentations relating to comics (such as the Eisner Awards, which have been presented at San Diego Comic-Con International since 1988; or the Harvey Awards, which have been presented at a variety of venues also since 1988).
At commercial events, comic book creators often give out autographs to the fans, sometimes in exchange for a flat appearance fee, and sometimes may draw illustrations for a per-item fee. Commercial conventions are usually quite expensive and are hosted in hotels. This represents a change in comic book conventions, which traditionally were more oriented toward comic books as a mode of literature, and maintained a less caste-like differentiation between professional and fan.
The first official comic book convention was held in 1964 in New York City. Early conventions were small affairs, usually organized by local enthusiasts (such as Jerry Bails, later known as the "Father of Comic Fandom", and Dave Kaler of the Academy of Comic-Book Fans and Collectors), and featuring a handful of industry guests.
The first recurring conventions were the Detroit Triple Fan Fair, which ran from 1965–1978, and Academy Con, which ran from 1965–1967. Many recurring conventions begin as single-day events in small venues, which as they grow more popular expand to two days, or even three or more every year. Many comic-cons which had their start in church basements or union halls now fill convention centers in major cities.
Nowadays, comic conventions are big business, with recurring shows in every major American city. Comic book conventions in name only, the biggest shows include a large range of pop culture and entertainment elements across virtually all genres, including horror, animation, anime, manga, toys, collectible card games, video games, webcomics, and fantasy novels.
Wizard Entertainment is the industry leader in these types of conventions, with ongoing shows in 21 American cities. San Diego Comic-Con International, a multi-genre entertainment and comic convention held annually in San Diego since 1970, is the standard bearer for U.S. comic-cons. According to Forbes, the convention is the "largest convention of its kind in the world;" and is also the largest convention held in San Diego. According to the San Diego Convention and Visitor's Bureau, the convention has an annual regional economic impact of $162.8 million, with a $180 million economic impact in 2011.
Internationally, the largest European comic book festivals are Lucca Comics & Games (first held in 1965) and the Angoulême International Comics Festival (first staged in 1974). The world's largest comic book convention, in terms of attendees, is Japan's Comiket (first held in 1975), which boasts annual attendance of over half a million people.
Parenting including the Parent and Teacher Association (PTA)
YouTube Video about the National PTA
For more about the Parent and Teacher Association (PTA), click here
Parenting or child rearing is the process of promoting and supporting the physical, emotional, social, financial, and intellectual development of a child from infancy to adulthood. Parenting refers to the aspects of raising a child aside from the biological relationship.
The most common caretaker in parenting is the biological parent(s) of the child in question, although others may be an older sibling, a grandparent, a legal guardian, aunt, uncle or other family member, or a family friend.
Governments and society may have a role in child-rearing as well. In many cases, orphaned or abandoned children receive parental care from non-parent blood relations.
Others may be adopted, raised in foster care, or placed in an orphanage. Parenting skills vary, and a parent with good parenting skills may be referred to as a good parent.
The English pediatrician and psychoanalyst Donald Winnicott described the concept of "good-enough" parenting in which a minimum of prerequisites for healthy child development are met. Winnicott wrote, "The good-enough mother...starts off with an almost complete adaptation to her infant's needs, and as time proceeds she adapts less and less completely, gradually, according to the infant's growing ability to deal with her failure."
Views on the characteristics that make one a good or "good-enough" parent vary from culture to culture. Additionally, research has supported that parental history both in terms of attachments of varying quality as well as parental psychopathology, particularly in the wake of adverse experiences, can strongly influence parental sensitivity and child outcomes.
Click on any of the following blue hyperlinks for further amplification:
Parenting or child rearing is the process of promoting and supporting the physical, emotional, social, financial, and intellectual development of a child from infancy to adulthood. Parenting refers to the aspects of raising a child aside from the biological relationship.
The most common caretaker in parenting is the biological parent(s) of the child in question, although others may be an older sibling, a grandparent, a legal guardian, aunt, uncle or other family member, or a family friend.
Governments and society may have a role in child-rearing as well. In many cases, orphaned or abandoned children receive parental care from non-parent blood relations.
Others may be adopted, raised in foster care, or placed in an orphanage. Parenting skills vary, and a parent with good parenting skills may be referred to as a good parent.
The English pediatrician and psychoanalyst Donald Winnicott described the concept of "good-enough" parenting in which a minimum of prerequisites for healthy child development are met. Winnicott wrote, "The good-enough mother...starts off with an almost complete adaptation to her infant's needs, and as time proceeds she adapts less and less completely, gradually, according to the infant's growing ability to deal with her failure."
Views on the characteristics that make one a good or "good-enough" parent vary from culture to culture. Additionally, research has supported that parental history both in terms of attachments of varying quality as well as parental psychopathology, particularly in the wake of adverse experiences, can strongly influence parental sensitivity and child outcomes.
Click on any of the following blue hyperlinks for further amplification:
- Factors that affect decisions
- Parenting Styles
- Practices
- Across the lifespan
- Assistance
- Childbearing and happiness
- See also:
Children of a Single Parent
YouTube Video: Growing Up In A Single Parent Home
Pictured: Montage of Single Parents and their Children
A single parent is an uncoupled individual who shoulders most or all of the day-to-day responsibilities for raising a child or children. A mother is more often the primary caregiver in a single-parent family structure that has arisen due to death of the partner, divorce or unplanned pregnancy.
Historically, death of a partner was a major cause of single parenting. Single parenting can also result from the breakup or divorce of coupled parents. Custody battles, awarded by the court or rationalized in other terms, determine who the child will spend majority of their time with. In western society in general, following the separation of a heterosexual couple, a child is placed with the primary caregiver, usually the mother, while the secondary caregiver is usually the father., though the reverse does happen and joint custody is on the rise.
Recent years have seen the increasing incidence and visibility of uncoupled women who choose to be single parents. When single women seek to get pregnant intentionally in order to become single mothers by choice (or "choice moms"), they often seek an anonymous or known sperm donor. Single parent adoption or fostering is also sometimes an option for single adults who want to raise a family.
The demographics of single parenting show a general increase worldwide in children living in single parent homes. Single parenting has become a norm in the United States and is a trend found in multiple other countries.
The morality and advisability of single motherhood has long been debated in the US. Single American mothers live in poverty 5 times more often than married parents.(National Women’s Law Center, Poverty & Income Among Women & Families, 2000-2013) the topic is less contentious in Western European countries where all families enjoy more robust state-sponsored social benefits.
Click on any of the following blue hyperlinks for further amplification:
Historically, death of a partner was a major cause of single parenting. Single parenting can also result from the breakup or divorce of coupled parents. Custody battles, awarded by the court or rationalized in other terms, determine who the child will spend majority of their time with. In western society in general, following the separation of a heterosexual couple, a child is placed with the primary caregiver, usually the mother, while the secondary caregiver is usually the father., though the reverse does happen and joint custody is on the rise.
Recent years have seen the increasing incidence and visibility of uncoupled women who choose to be single parents. When single women seek to get pregnant intentionally in order to become single mothers by choice (or "choice moms"), they often seek an anonymous or known sperm donor. Single parent adoption or fostering is also sometimes an option for single adults who want to raise a family.
The demographics of single parenting show a general increase worldwide in children living in single parent homes. Single parenting has become a norm in the United States and is a trend found in multiple other countries.
The morality and advisability of single motherhood has long been debated in the US. Single American mothers live in poverty 5 times more often than married parents.(National Women’s Law Center, Poverty & Income Among Women & Families, 2000-2013) the topic is less contentious in Western European countries where all families enjoy more robust state-sponsored social benefits.
Click on any of the following blue hyperlinks for further amplification:
- History
- Demographics
- Debates
- Primary caregiver
- Mental health of single mothers
- Types of single parenting
- Living arrangements for single parents
- See also:
Children who are home-schooled in the United States
YouTube Video: A Day in the Life of a Homeschooling Mom
Pictured: TOP: Breakdown of students who are homeschooled based on need; BOTTOM: Arguments for and against homeschooling.
Homeschooling, also known as home education, is the education of children inside the home. Home education is usually conducted by a parent or tutor.
Many families that start out with a formal school structure at home often switch to less formal ways of imparting education outside of school.
Prior to the introduction of compulsory school attendance laws, most childhood education was imparted by the family or community.
In several countries homeschooling in the modern sense is considered to be an alternative to attending public or private schools, and is a legal option for parents. In other countries homeschooling is considered illegal or restricted to specific conditions, as noted in the Homeschooling international status and statistics.
According to the US National Household Education Surveys, about three percent of all children in the US were homeschooled in the 2011 and 2012 school year. And as of 2016, there are about 2.3 million home-schooled students in the United States (Brian, 2016). The studies found that of these children, 83 percent were White, 5 percent were Black, 7 percent were Hispanic, and 2 percent were Asian or Pacific Islander.
Parents cite two main motivations for homeschooling their children: dissatisfaction with the local schools and the interest in increased involvement with their children's learning and development.
Parents' dissatisfaction with available schools includes concerns about the school environment, the quality of academic instruction, the curriculum, and bullying as well as lack of faith in the school's ability to cater to their child's special needs.
Some parents homeschool in order to have greater control over what and how their children are taught, to better cater for children's individual aptitudes and abilities adequately, to provide a specific religious or moral instruction, and to take advantage of the efficiency of one-to-one instruction, which allows the child to spend more time on childhood activities, socializing, and non-academic learning.
Many parents are also influenced by alternative educational philosophies espoused by the likes of Susan Sutherland Isaacs, Charlotte Mason, John Holt, and Sir Kenneth Robinson, among others.
Homeschooling may also be a factor in the choice of parenting style. Homeschooling can be an option for families living in isolated rural locations, for those temporarily abroad, and for those who travel frequently.
Many young athletes, actors, and musicians are taught at home to better accommodate their training and practice schedules. Homeschooling can be about mentorship and apprenticeship, in which a tutor or teacher is with the child for many years and gets to know the child very well. Recently, homeschooling has increased in popularity in the United States, and the percentage of children ages 5 through 17 who are homeschooled increased from 1.7% in 1999 to 3% in 2011/12.
Homeschooling can be used as a form of supplemental education and as a way of helping children learn under specific circumstances. The term may also refer to instruction in the home under the supervision of correspondence schools or umbrella schools. In some places, an approved curriculum is legally required if children are homeschooled.
A curriculum-free philosophy of homeschooling is sometimes called unschooling, a term coined in 1977 by American educator and author John Holt in his magazine, Growing Without Schooling. The term emphasizes the more spontaneous, less structured learning environment where a child's interests drive their pursuit of knowledge. In some cases, a liberal arts education is provided using the trivium and quadrivium as the main models.
Click here for more about Homeschooling in General.
Click here for more about Homeschooling specific to the United States.
Many families that start out with a formal school structure at home often switch to less formal ways of imparting education outside of school.
Prior to the introduction of compulsory school attendance laws, most childhood education was imparted by the family or community.
In several countries homeschooling in the modern sense is considered to be an alternative to attending public or private schools, and is a legal option for parents. In other countries homeschooling is considered illegal or restricted to specific conditions, as noted in the Homeschooling international status and statistics.
According to the US National Household Education Surveys, about three percent of all children in the US were homeschooled in the 2011 and 2012 school year. And as of 2016, there are about 2.3 million home-schooled students in the United States (Brian, 2016). The studies found that of these children, 83 percent were White, 5 percent were Black, 7 percent were Hispanic, and 2 percent were Asian or Pacific Islander.
Parents cite two main motivations for homeschooling their children: dissatisfaction with the local schools and the interest in increased involvement with their children's learning and development.
Parents' dissatisfaction with available schools includes concerns about the school environment, the quality of academic instruction, the curriculum, and bullying as well as lack of faith in the school's ability to cater to their child's special needs.
Some parents homeschool in order to have greater control over what and how their children are taught, to better cater for children's individual aptitudes and abilities adequately, to provide a specific religious or moral instruction, and to take advantage of the efficiency of one-to-one instruction, which allows the child to spend more time on childhood activities, socializing, and non-academic learning.
Many parents are also influenced by alternative educational philosophies espoused by the likes of Susan Sutherland Isaacs, Charlotte Mason, John Holt, and Sir Kenneth Robinson, among others.
Homeschooling may also be a factor in the choice of parenting style. Homeschooling can be an option for families living in isolated rural locations, for those temporarily abroad, and for those who travel frequently.
Many young athletes, actors, and musicians are taught at home to better accommodate their training and practice schedules. Homeschooling can be about mentorship and apprenticeship, in which a tutor or teacher is with the child for many years and gets to know the child very well. Recently, homeschooling has increased in popularity in the United States, and the percentage of children ages 5 through 17 who are homeschooled increased from 1.7% in 1999 to 3% in 2011/12.
Homeschooling can be used as a form of supplemental education and as a way of helping children learn under specific circumstances. The term may also refer to instruction in the home under the supervision of correspondence schools or umbrella schools. In some places, an approved curriculum is legally required if children are homeschooled.
A curriculum-free philosophy of homeschooling is sometimes called unschooling, a term coined in 1977 by American educator and author John Holt in his magazine, Growing Without Schooling. The term emphasizes the more spontaneous, less structured learning environment where a child's interests drive their pursuit of knowledge. In some cases, a liberal arts education is provided using the trivium and quadrivium as the main models.
Click here for more about Homeschooling in General.
Click here for more about Homeschooling specific to the United States.
Children with Special Needs and/or Requiring Special Education
YouTube Video: The Face of Autism
In the United States, special needs is a term used in clinical diagnostic and functional development to describe individuals who require assistance for disabilities that may be medical, mental, or psychological. For instance, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders and the International Classification of Diseases 9th edition both give guidelines for clinical diagnosis. Types of special needs vary in severity. People with autism, Down syndrome, dyslexia, blindness, ADHD, or cystic fibrosis, for example, may be considered to have special needs. However, special needs can also include cleft lips and/or palates, port-wine stains, or missing limbs.
Special education (also known as special needs education or aided education) is the practice of educating students with special educational needs in a way that addresses their individual differences and needs. Ideally, this process involves the individually planned and systematically monitored arrangement of teaching procedures, adapted equipment and materials, and accessible settings.
These interventions are designed to help learners with special needs achieve a higher level of personal self-sufficiency and success in school and their community, than may be available if the student were only given access to a typical classroom education.
Common special needs include:
Students with these kinds of special needs are likely to benefit from additional educational services such as different approaches to teaching, the use of technology, a specifically adapted teaching area, or a resource room.
Intellectual giftedness is a difference in learning and can also benefit from specialised teaching techniques or different educational programs, but the term "special education" is generally used to specifically indicate instruction of students with disabilities. Gifted education is handled separately.
Whereas special education is designed specifically for students with special needs, remedial education can be designed for any students, with or without special needs; the defining trait is simply that they have reached a point of unpreparedness, regardless of why. For example, even people of high intelligence can be under prepared if their education was disrupted, for example, by internal displacement during civil disorder or a war.
In most developed countries, educators modify teaching methods and environments so that the maximum number of students are served in general education environments. Therefore, special education in developed countries is often regarded as a service rather than a place. Integration can reduce social stigmas and improve academic achievement for many students.
Click on any of the following blue hyperlinks for further amplification:
Special education (also known as special needs education or aided education) is the practice of educating students with special educational needs in a way that addresses their individual differences and needs. Ideally, this process involves the individually planned and systematically monitored arrangement of teaching procedures, adapted equipment and materials, and accessible settings.
These interventions are designed to help learners with special needs achieve a higher level of personal self-sufficiency and success in school and their community, than may be available if the student were only given access to a typical classroom education.
Common special needs include:
- learning disabilities,
- communication disorders,
- emotional and behavioral disorders,
- physical disabilities,
- and developmental disabilities.
Students with these kinds of special needs are likely to benefit from additional educational services such as different approaches to teaching, the use of technology, a specifically adapted teaching area, or a resource room.
Intellectual giftedness is a difference in learning and can also benefit from specialised teaching techniques or different educational programs, but the term "special education" is generally used to specifically indicate instruction of students with disabilities. Gifted education is handled separately.
Whereas special education is designed specifically for students with special needs, remedial education can be designed for any students, with or without special needs; the defining trait is simply that they have reached a point of unpreparedness, regardless of why. For example, even people of high intelligence can be under prepared if their education was disrupted, for example, by internal displacement during civil disorder or a war.
In most developed countries, educators modify teaching methods and environments so that the maximum number of students are served in general education environments. Therefore, special education in developed countries is often regarded as a service rather than a place. Integration can reduce social stigmas and improve academic achievement for many students.
Click on any of the following blue hyperlinks for further amplification:
- Identifying students or learners with special needs
- Individual needs
- Methods of provision
- Instructional strategies
- Issues
- National approaches: North America
- See also:
- Adapted Physical Education
- Disability studies
- Disability and Poverty
- Early childhood intervention
- Inclusive education
- Learning environment
- Learning space
- Mainstreaming in education
- Matching Person & Technology Model
- Post Secondary Transition For High School Students with Disabilities
- Reasonable accommodation
- Response to intervention
- Special needs
- Tracking (education)
- Washington County Closed-Circuit Educational Television Project
- Supported employment services
Preschool Education
YouTube Video: Beginning the Year in a Preschool Classroom*
*-Join Breeyn Mack as she looks at beginning the year in a preschool classroom. She talks about planning for a new school year and shares strategies for supporting children's social-emotional development as they become more comfortable in their new environment.
Pictured: LEFT: Preschool classroom; RIGHT: Preschool Rules
A preschool (also nursery school, pre-primary school, kindergarten outside the US and UK) is a school offering early childhood education to children between the ages of three and five, prior to the commencement of compulsory education at primary school. They may be privately operated or government run, and the costs may be subsidized.
The following terms may be used for educational establishments for this age group:
Click on any of the following blue hyperlinks for further amplification:
The following terms may be used for educational establishments for this age group:
- Kindergarten is the term is used to refer to the first stage of compulsory education offered at the age of five.
- Pre-K (or Pre-Kindergarten) is an initiative to improve access to preschool for disadvantaged children in the US.
- Preschool for ages 2-3
- Nursery School for ages 2 - 5
- Grade 0-2, which is also sometimes classified as "a daycare service".
- Pre-Primary
Click on any of the following blue hyperlinks for further amplification:
Primary Education (Grades 1st through 8th) in the United States
YouTube Video Back To School Middle School Vs. High School!
Pictured: The Major Goals of Primary Education in the United States
Primary education in the United States (also elementary education) refers to the first eight years of formal education in most jurisdictions, often in elementary school.
Preschool programs, which are less formal and usually not mandated by law, are generally not considered part of primary education. The first year of primary education is commonly referred to as kindergarten and begins at or around age 5 or 6. Subsequent years are usually numbered being referred to as first grade, second grade, and so forth.
Elementary schools normally continue through sixth grade, which the students normally complete when they are age 11 or 12.
In 2001, there were 92,858 elementary schools (68,173 public, 24,685 private) in the United States.
Elementary school (Kindergarten through grade 4/5/6)Main article: Elementary school (United States)
Students may attend either a 6- or 7-year public or private elementary school. Elementary school usually runs from kindergarten through either grade 5 or grade 6, depending on the region.
Upon successful completion of their elementary education students then proceed to middle school, also known as junior high school. Additionally, students may have the option of attending elementary schools that include all eight primary grades. In this case the student will directly proceed to High School.
In most U.S. elementary schools, students have all their core classes from one or two homeroom teachers (as opposed to middle and high schools that typically have students rotate from one specialized teacher to the next throughout the day). In some elementary schools, when funding and supplies are adequate, additional teachers are hired to instruct students in areas such as Art and music.
Preschool programs, which are less formal and usually not mandated by law, are generally not considered part of primary education. The first year of primary education is commonly referred to as kindergarten and begins at or around age 5 or 6. Subsequent years are usually numbered being referred to as first grade, second grade, and so forth.
Elementary schools normally continue through sixth grade, which the students normally complete when they are age 11 or 12.
In 2001, there were 92,858 elementary schools (68,173 public, 24,685 private) in the United States.
Elementary school (Kindergarten through grade 4/5/6)Main article: Elementary school (United States)
Students may attend either a 6- or 7-year public or private elementary school. Elementary school usually runs from kindergarten through either grade 5 or grade 6, depending on the region.
Upon successful completion of their elementary education students then proceed to middle school, also known as junior high school. Additionally, students may have the option of attending elementary schools that include all eight primary grades. In this case the student will directly proceed to High School.
In most U.S. elementary schools, students have all their core classes from one or two homeroom teachers (as opposed to middle and high schools that typically have students rotate from one specialized teacher to the next throughout the day). In some elementary schools, when funding and supplies are adequate, additional teachers are hired to instruct students in areas such as Art and music.
Secondary Education (aka "High School") in the United States
Including membership in the National Honor Society
YouTube Video about The National Society of High School Scholars
In most jurisdictions, secondary education in the United States refers to the last four years of statutory formal education (grade nine through grade twelve) either at high school or split between a final year of 'junior high school' and three in high school.
Click on any of the following blue hyperlinks for further amplification:
Click on any of the following blue hyperlinks for further amplification:
- History
- Curriculum including Electives
- Levels of education:
- Types of schools
- Teacher certification
- Compulsory Education
- See also:
Religious Schools in the United States with a focus on Christian Schools including Catholic Schools
YouTube Video of Education Forum: Parochial School's Education*
* -- Host, Herman Badillo, Vice Chairman of the City University of New York Board of Trustees, discusses parochial school education with Monsignor Guy Puglisi, Superintendent of Schools for the Brooklyn Diocese. Monsignor Puglisi characterizes parochial schools and explains parochial school curriculum. Badillo and Monsignor Puglisi examine similarities and differences between parochial and public schools.
Pictured: LEFT: Amish Schoolhouse class; RIGHT: classroom at a Catholic parochial school
In the United States, religious education is often provided through supplementary "Sunday school", "Hebrew school", or catechism classes, taught to children at their families' places of worship, either in conjunction with worship services or some other time during the week, after weekday school classes.
Some families believe supplementary religious education is inadequate, and send their children to private religious schools, called parochial schools when they are affiliated with a specific parish or congregation.
Under U.S. law, religious education is forbidden in public schools, except from a neutral, academic perspective. For a teacher or school administration to endorse one religion is considered an infringement of the "establishment clause" of the First Amendment.
The boundaries of this rule are frequently tested, with court cases challenging the treatment of traditional religious holidays, displays of religious articles and documents such as the Ten Commandments, the recitation of the Pledge of Allegiance (which since 1954 has described the U.S. as "one nation under God"), and how prayer should be accommodated in the classroom.
Click here for religious schools listed by faith in the United States.
___________________________________________________________________________
A Christian school is a school run on Christian principles or by a Christian organization.
The nature of Christian schools varies enormously from country to country, according to the religious, educational, and political cultures. In some countries, there is a strict separation of church and state, so all religious schools are private; in others, there is an established church whose teachings form an integral part of the state-operated educational system; in yet others, the state subsidizes religious schools of various denominations.
In the United States, religion is generally not taught by state-funded educational systems, though schools must allow students wanting to study religion to do so as an extracurricular activity, as they would with any other such activity.
Over 4 million students, about 1 child in 12, attend religious schools, most of them Christian. There is great variety in the educational and religious philosophies of these schools, as might be expected from the large number of religious denominations in the United States.
Click on any of the blue hyperlinks below to expand on Christian Schools in the United States, presented by denomination:
Governing Bodies follow:
See also:
Catholic Schools (pre-K, Primary, and Secondary Schools)
Catholic schools are parochial schools or education ministries of the Roman Catholic Church. As of 2011, the Church operates the world's largest non-governmental school system. In 2016, the church supported 43,800 secondary schools, and 95,200 primary schools.
Catholic schools participate in the evangelizing mission of the Church, integrating religious education as the core subject within their curriculum.
Background:
Irish immigration provides the main contribution to the increases in Catholic communities across the globe. The Irish immigration established the revival of Catholicism through movement to countries across North America, Europe, United Kingdom and Australia.
Historically, the establishment of Catholic schools in Europe encountered various struggles following the creation of the Church of England in the Elizabethan Religious settlements of 1558-63.
Anti-Catholicism in this period encouraged Catholics to create modern Catholic education systems to preserve their traditions. The Relief Acts of 1782 and the Catholic Emancipation Act of 1829 later increased the possibility to openly practice Catholicism in England and to create charitable institutions by the Church. This led to the development of numerous native religious congregations which established schools, hospitals, orphanages, reformatories, and workhouses.
Traditionally, Catholic schools originated as single sex schools. Catholic schools were previously required to depend on school fees and endowments. Endowments dropped off sharply causing fees to rise. This prevented some students from enrolling due to their inability to pay.
Purpose:
Catholic schools are distinct from their public school counterparts in focusing on the development of individuals as practitioners of the Catholic faith. The leaders, teachers and students are required to focus on four fundamental rules initiated by the Church and school. This includes the Catholic identity of the school, education in regards to life and faith, celebration of life and faith, and action and social justice.
Like other Christian-affiliated institutions, Catholic schools are generally nondenominational, in that they accept anyone regardless of religion or denominational affiliation, race or ethnicity, or nationality, provided the admission or enrollment requirements and legal documents are submitted, and rules & regulations are obeyed for a fruitful school life.
However, non-Catholics, whether Christian or not, may need to participate in or be exempted from required activities, particularly those of a religious nature. These are in keeping with the spirit of social inclusiveness.
Religious Education:
The religious education as a core subject is a vital element of the curriculum where individuals are to develop themselves: “intellectually, physically, socially, emotionally and of course, spiritually.”
The education also involves: “the distinct but complementary aspect of the school's religious dimension of liturgical and prayer life of the school community.” In Catholic schools, teachers teach a Religious Education Program provided by the Bishop. Both teacher and Bishop therefore, contribute to the planning and teaching Religious Education Lessons.
Catholic education has been identified as a positive fertility factor; Catholic education at college level and, to lesser degree, at secondary school level is associated with a higher number of children, even when accounting for the confounding effect that higher religiosity leads to a higher probability of attending religious education.
United States:
Main article: Catholic schools in the United States
See also: Elementary school and High school
Catholic schools are the largest non-public school system in the USA. In 2010, 2 million students attended 6,980 schools. 331 of these are private. Catholicism of schools in the United States was first established during the 19th century with the arrival of English immigrants.
Catholic schools in the USA are significant in that Catholicism is seen to have been critical in developing the American culture. The development and enrollment of Americans into Catholic schools increased after World War II, Post-war development and Cold War in the battle against anti-religious Communism.
By the time of 1964-1965, Catholic schools accounted for nearly 89% of all private school attendance and 12% of all school-age children in school (K-12) in the USA. The number of religious (priests, brothers, and sisters) was at its highest, allowing schools to offer qualified teachers at minimal costs, meaning that most children in the 1940s and 1950s attended their parish school free of charge.
Since then, there has been a large decline in enrollment predominantly believed to be due to “suburbanization, liberalization of education and the rise of the Catholic middle-class.” In the United States, Catholic schools are accredited by independent and/or state agencies, and teachers are generally certified. Schools are supported through tuition payments, donations, and fund raising charities.
In contrast to its public school counterpart, Catholic urbanization has made more significant achievements in poor areas than wealthier areas. Holy Angels, for example has become one of the strongest academic institutions in the country; it serves the Kenwood, Oakland neighborhoods of South Side Chicago, Illinois, where 3 out of 4 people live in poverty and violent crime is frequent.
The United States Conference of Catholic Bishops listed six key responsibilities of Catholic Schools. They are:
In 2015, the Inner-city Scholarship Fund run by the Archdiocese of New York announced the largest-ever gift of private money to Catholic schooling. Christine and Stephen Schwarzmann gave $40 million to an endowment that will provide 2,900 children per year with scholarships.
Click on any of the following blue hyperlinks for more about Catholic Primary and Secondary Education:
Some families believe supplementary religious education is inadequate, and send their children to private religious schools, called parochial schools when they are affiliated with a specific parish or congregation.
Under U.S. law, religious education is forbidden in public schools, except from a neutral, academic perspective. For a teacher or school administration to endorse one religion is considered an infringement of the "establishment clause" of the First Amendment.
The boundaries of this rule are frequently tested, with court cases challenging the treatment of traditional religious holidays, displays of religious articles and documents such as the Ten Commandments, the recitation of the Pledge of Allegiance (which since 1954 has described the U.S. as "one nation under God"), and how prayer should be accommodated in the classroom.
Click here for religious schools listed by faith in the United States.
___________________________________________________________________________
A Christian school is a school run on Christian principles or by a Christian organization.
The nature of Christian schools varies enormously from country to country, according to the religious, educational, and political cultures. In some countries, there is a strict separation of church and state, so all religious schools are private; in others, there is an established church whose teachings form an integral part of the state-operated educational system; in yet others, the state subsidizes religious schools of various denominations.
In the United States, religion is generally not taught by state-funded educational systems, though schools must allow students wanting to study religion to do so as an extracurricular activity, as they would with any other such activity.
Over 4 million students, about 1 child in 12, attend religious schools, most of them Christian. There is great variety in the educational and religious philosophies of these schools, as might be expected from the large number of religious denominations in the United States.
Click on any of the blue hyperlinks below to expand on Christian Schools in the United States, presented by denomination:
- Catholic (see below)
- Lutheran
- Episcopal
- Conservative Protestant
- Mennonites
- Other
Governing Bodies follow:
- American Association of Christian Schools
- Association of Christian Schools International
- Association of Classical Christian Schools
- Christian Schools International
- National Association of University-Model Schools
- Garden State Association of Christian Schools
See also:
- Parochial school
- Adventist Schools
- Lutheran school
- Nazarene International Education Association
- Homeschooling
Catholic Schools (pre-K, Primary, and Secondary Schools)
Catholic schools are parochial schools or education ministries of the Roman Catholic Church. As of 2011, the Church operates the world's largest non-governmental school system. In 2016, the church supported 43,800 secondary schools, and 95,200 primary schools.
Catholic schools participate in the evangelizing mission of the Church, integrating religious education as the core subject within their curriculum.
Background:
Irish immigration provides the main contribution to the increases in Catholic communities across the globe. The Irish immigration established the revival of Catholicism through movement to countries across North America, Europe, United Kingdom and Australia.
Historically, the establishment of Catholic schools in Europe encountered various struggles following the creation of the Church of England in the Elizabethan Religious settlements of 1558-63.
Anti-Catholicism in this period encouraged Catholics to create modern Catholic education systems to preserve their traditions. The Relief Acts of 1782 and the Catholic Emancipation Act of 1829 later increased the possibility to openly practice Catholicism in England and to create charitable institutions by the Church. This led to the development of numerous native religious congregations which established schools, hospitals, orphanages, reformatories, and workhouses.
Traditionally, Catholic schools originated as single sex schools. Catholic schools were previously required to depend on school fees and endowments. Endowments dropped off sharply causing fees to rise. This prevented some students from enrolling due to their inability to pay.
Purpose:
Catholic schools are distinct from their public school counterparts in focusing on the development of individuals as practitioners of the Catholic faith. The leaders, teachers and students are required to focus on four fundamental rules initiated by the Church and school. This includes the Catholic identity of the school, education in regards to life and faith, celebration of life and faith, and action and social justice.
Like other Christian-affiliated institutions, Catholic schools are generally nondenominational, in that they accept anyone regardless of religion or denominational affiliation, race or ethnicity, or nationality, provided the admission or enrollment requirements and legal documents are submitted, and rules & regulations are obeyed for a fruitful school life.
However, non-Catholics, whether Christian or not, may need to participate in or be exempted from required activities, particularly those of a religious nature. These are in keeping with the spirit of social inclusiveness.
Religious Education:
The religious education as a core subject is a vital element of the curriculum where individuals are to develop themselves: “intellectually, physically, socially, emotionally and of course, spiritually.”
The education also involves: “the distinct but complementary aspect of the school's religious dimension of liturgical and prayer life of the school community.” In Catholic schools, teachers teach a Religious Education Program provided by the Bishop. Both teacher and Bishop therefore, contribute to the planning and teaching Religious Education Lessons.
Catholic education has been identified as a positive fertility factor; Catholic education at college level and, to lesser degree, at secondary school level is associated with a higher number of children, even when accounting for the confounding effect that higher religiosity leads to a higher probability of attending religious education.
United States:
Main article: Catholic schools in the United States
See also: Elementary school and High school
Catholic schools are the largest non-public school system in the USA. In 2010, 2 million students attended 6,980 schools. 331 of these are private. Catholicism of schools in the United States was first established during the 19th century with the arrival of English immigrants.
Catholic schools in the USA are significant in that Catholicism is seen to have been critical in developing the American culture. The development and enrollment of Americans into Catholic schools increased after World War II, Post-war development and Cold War in the battle against anti-religious Communism.
By the time of 1964-1965, Catholic schools accounted for nearly 89% of all private school attendance and 12% of all school-age children in school (K-12) in the USA. The number of religious (priests, brothers, and sisters) was at its highest, allowing schools to offer qualified teachers at minimal costs, meaning that most children in the 1940s and 1950s attended their parish school free of charge.
Since then, there has been a large decline in enrollment predominantly believed to be due to “suburbanization, liberalization of education and the rise of the Catholic middle-class.” In the United States, Catholic schools are accredited by independent and/or state agencies, and teachers are generally certified. Schools are supported through tuition payments, donations, and fund raising charities.
In contrast to its public school counterpart, Catholic urbanization has made more significant achievements in poor areas than wealthier areas. Holy Angels, for example has become one of the strongest academic institutions in the country; it serves the Kenwood, Oakland neighborhoods of South Side Chicago, Illinois, where 3 out of 4 people live in poverty and violent crime is frequent.
The United States Conference of Catholic Bishops listed six key responsibilities of Catholic Schools. They are:
- Encouraging and supporting efforts in Catholic education by fostering the distribution and implementation of both universal Church documents on education as well as related documents developed by the bishops of the United States
- Supporting educational efforts in the Church in the United States by developing policies, guidelines, and resources for use by bishops in their dioceses
- Providing consultation on educational issues when requested, including advising and representing the bishops
- Collaborating with the Committee on Evangelization and Catechesis regarding evangelization and catechesis in Catholic schools and universities
- Providing support and advocacy in federal public policy on behalf of Catholic educational institutions from pre-school through high school levels
- Bringing to Catholic education the perspectives and concerns of other cultures and people with special pastoral needs through collaboration with other committees/offices
In 2015, the Inner-city Scholarship Fund run by the Archdiocese of New York announced the largest-ever gift of private money to Catholic schooling. Christine and Stephen Schwarzmann gave $40 million to an endowment that will provide 2,900 children per year with scholarships.
Click on any of the following blue hyperlinks for more about Catholic Primary and Secondary Education:
- Funding
- International benefits
- International challenges
- See also:
- Category:Catholic schools by country
- Christian school
- National Catholic Educational Association
- Parochial school
- Catholic university
- Catholic school uniform
- Alliance for Catholic Education – more information on support for Catholic schools in the United State
Military (high school) Academy including a List of Military Schools and Academies.
YouTube Video: Military School for Boys St John's
Pictured: Thirteen graduating Southington High School seniors were honored on Tuesday afternoon for their enlistment in the United States military. The students were recognized at a luncheon on June 10, when families, local veterans, school administrators and town officials gathered in their honor.
Military high schools are a type of high school that include military cadet education, so are a form of military academy. They are found in a number of countries and offer a regular high school education but with an extra curriculum of military training.
For example, cadets must rise early and do physical training to be followed by games in the afternoon. However, in the same way as a high or secondary school, they have academic classes after the breakfast.
In the evening there may be self study classes. As a part of military institute, seniority is important and commands of seniors must be obeyed by juniors.
The grade works as the rank of the cadets. All cadets from the same batch are considered to be of the same rank. However, in higher grades, prefects are selected to lead the normal cadets.
Click here for a List of United States Military Schools and Academies.
For example, cadets must rise early and do physical training to be followed by games in the afternoon. However, in the same way as a high or secondary school, they have academic classes after the breakfast.
In the evening there may be self study classes. As a part of military institute, seniority is important and commands of seniors must be obeyed by juniors.
The grade works as the rank of the cadets. All cadets from the same batch are considered to be of the same rank. However, in higher grades, prefects are selected to lead the normal cadets.
Click here for a List of United States Military Schools and Academies.
No Child Left Behind Act of 2001
YouTube Video: 'No Child Left Behind' may be getting a bad rap (Vanderbilt University)
Pictured: President George W. Bush who signed the Act; RIGHT: Logo of No Child Left Behind Act
The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB) was a U.S. Act of Congress which reauthorized the Elementary and Secondary Education Act; it included Title I provisions applying to disadvantaged students. It supported standards-based education reform based on the premise that setting high standards and establishing measurable goals could improve individual outcomes in education.
The Act required states to develop assessments in basic skills. To receive federal school funding, states had to give these assessments to all students at select grade levels.
The Act did not assert a national achievement standard. Each individual state developed its own standards. NCLB expanded the federal role in public education through further emphasis on annual testing, annual academic progress, report cards, and teacher qualifications, as well as significant changes in funding.
The bill passed in the Congress with bipartisan support. President George W. Bush signing the No Child Left Behind Act .
By 2015, criticism from right, left, and center had accumulated so much that a bipartisan Congress stripped away all the national features of No Child Left Behind. Its replacement, the Every Student Succeeds Act, turned the remnants over to the states.
For further amplification, click here.
The Act required states to develop assessments in basic skills. To receive federal school funding, states had to give these assessments to all students at select grade levels.
The Act did not assert a national achievement standard. Each individual state developed its own standards. NCLB expanded the federal role in public education through further emphasis on annual testing, annual academic progress, report cards, and teacher qualifications, as well as significant changes in funding.
The bill passed in the Congress with bipartisan support. President George W. Bush signing the No Child Left Behind Act .
By 2015, criticism from right, left, and center had accumulated so much that a bipartisan Congress stripped away all the national features of No Child Left Behind. Its replacement, the Every Student Succeeds Act, turned the remnants over to the states.
For further amplification, click here.
Boarding Schools, including a List of Boarding Schools in the United States
YouTube Video What's the best thing about Phillips Exeter Academy?
Pictured: A list of the 25 most elite boarding schools in America as determined by Business Insider
A boarding school is a school at which most or all of the students live during the part of the year that they go to lessons. The word 'boarding' is used in the sense of "bed and board," i.e., lodging and meals. Some boarding schools also have day students who attend the institution by day and return to their families in the evenings.
Boarding school pupils (a.k.a. "boarders") normally return home during the school holidays and often weekends, but in some cultures may spend most of their childhood and adolescent life away from their families.
In the United States, boarding schools comprise various grades, most commonly grades seven or nine through grade twelve—the high school years. Other schools are for younger children, grades two through eight.
A military school, or military academy, also features military education and training. Some American boarding schools offer a post-graduate year of study to help students prepare for college entrance, most commonly to assimilate foreign students to American culture and academics before college.
Click here for a listing of Boarding Schools in the United States.
Click on any of the blue hyperlinks below for further amplification:
Boarding school pupils (a.k.a. "boarders") normally return home during the school holidays and often weekends, but in some cultures may spend most of their childhood and adolescent life away from their families.
In the United States, boarding schools comprise various grades, most commonly grades seven or nine through grade twelve—the high school years. Other schools are for younger children, grades two through eight.
A military school, or military academy, also features military education and training. Some American boarding schools offer a post-graduate year of study to help students prepare for college entrance, most commonly to assimilate foreign students to American culture and academics before college.
Click here for a listing of Boarding Schools in the United States.
Click on any of the blue hyperlinks below for further amplification:
- Description:
- History in the United States, including Native American schools
- Sociological issues
- Psychological issues:
- In popular culture
- Books
- Films and television
- See also:
Nickelodeon TV Network including a List of Television Programs
YouTube Video: Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles - Half Shell Heroes: Blast to the Past
Pictured: LEFT: Sponge Bob Squarepants; RIGHT: School of Rock
Click here for a list of television programs broadcast by Nickelodeon.
Nickelodeon (often shortened to Nick) is an American basic cable and satellite television network launched on December 1, 1977, and is owned by Viacom through Viacom Media Networks and based in New York City. It is primarily aimed at children and adolescents aged 9–16, while its weekday morning edutainment programs are targeted at younger children ages 2–8.
As of February 2015, Nickelodeon is available to approximately 94.7 million pay television households (81.4% of households with at least one television set) in the United States.
Click on any of the following blue hyperlinks for further amplification:
Nickelodeon (often shortened to Nick) is an American basic cable and satellite television network launched on December 1, 1977, and is owned by Viacom through Viacom Media Networks and based in New York City. It is primarily aimed at children and adolescents aged 9–16, while its weekday morning edutainment programs are targeted at younger children ages 2–8.
As of February 2015, Nickelodeon is available to approximately 94.7 million pay television households (81.4% of households with at least one television set) in the United States.
Click on any of the following blue hyperlinks for further amplification:
- History
- Programming:
- Related networks and services:
- Nick at Nite
- Current sister channels:
- Former sister channels including Nickelodeon Games and Sports for Kids
- NickMom
- Media
- Experiences:
- Nickelodeon Universe
- Theme park areas
- Current attractions
- Closed areas
- Nickelodeon Animation Studio
- Nickelodeon on Sunset
- Hotel brands
- Cruises
- International
The Cartoon Network including a List of its Programs
YouTube Video: "Here Comes a Thought" | Steven Universe | Cartoon Network
Pictured: Cartoon Network animated series include LEFT: Tom and Jerry cartoon series; RIGHT: The 13 Ghosts of Scooby-Doo!
Cartoon Network (often abbreviated as CN) is an American basic cable and satellite television channel that is owned by Time Warner through the Turner Broadcasting System subsidiary. The channel airs primarily children's show - mostly animated programming, ranging from action to animated comedy. It was launched on October 1, 1992.
It is primarily aimed at children and young teenagers between the ages of 7 to 15, and targets older teens and adults with mature content during its late night daypart Adult Swim, which is treated as a separate entity for promotional purposes and as a separate channel by Nielsen for ratings purposes.
A Spanish language audio track for select programs is accessible via SAP; some cable and satellite companies offer the Spanish feed as a separate channel. It is also the related channel of Turner-owned Boomerang.
As of January 2016, Cartoon Network is available to approximately 94.0 million pay television households (80.7% of households with television) in the United States.
Click on any of the following blue hyperlinks for further amplification:
It is primarily aimed at children and young teenagers between the ages of 7 to 15, and targets older teens and adults with mature content during its late night daypart Adult Swim, which is treated as a separate entity for promotional purposes and as a separate channel by Nielsen for ratings purposes.
A Spanish language audio track for select programs is accessible via SAP; some cable and satellite companies offer the Spanish feed as a separate channel. It is also the related channel of Turner-owned Boomerang.
As of January 2016, Cartoon Network is available to approximately 94.0 million pay television households (80.7% of households with television) in the United States.
Click on any of the following blue hyperlinks for further amplification:
- History:
- Programming:
- Marketing
- Controversy and censorship
- Sister channels and related projects
- Online
- International channels
The Disney Channel including a List of Television and Related Programs
YouTube Video of the Disney Channel TV Series: Stuck in the Middle | The Big Day |
Pictured: The Disney Channel includes the programs LEFT: “Girl Meets World”; RIGHT: "Mickey Mouse"
Click here for a List of Programs broadcast on the Disney Channel.
Disney Channel (originally called The Disney Channel from 1983 to 1997 and commonly shortened to Disney from 1997 to 2002) is an American basic cable and satellite television network that serves as the flagship property of owner Disney Channels Television Group, itself a unit of the Disney Media Networks division of The Walt Disney Company.
The channel's programming consists of original first-run television series, theatrically-released and original made-for-cable movies and select other third-party programming. Disney Channel – which formerly operated as a premium service – originally marketed its programs towards families during the 1980s, and later at younger children by the late 1990s.
Most of Disney Channel's original programming is aimed at kids ages 9–16, while its Disney Junior programs are targeted at children 8 years and under.
As of February 2015, Disney Channel is available to approximately 96.2 million pay television households (82.7% of households with at least one television set) in the United States.
Click on any of the following blue hyperlinks for further amplification:
Disney Channel (originally called The Disney Channel from 1983 to 1997 and commonly shortened to Disney from 1997 to 2002) is an American basic cable and satellite television network that serves as the flagship property of owner Disney Channels Television Group, itself a unit of the Disney Media Networks division of The Walt Disney Company.
The channel's programming consists of original first-run television series, theatrically-released and original made-for-cable movies and select other third-party programming. Disney Channel – which formerly operated as a premium service – originally marketed its programs towards families during the 1980s, and later at younger children by the late 1990s.
Most of Disney Channel's original programming is aimed at kids ages 9–16, while its Disney Junior programs are targeted at children 8 years and under.
As of February 2015, Disney Channel is available to approximately 96.2 million pay television households (82.7% of households with at least one television set) in the United States.
Click on any of the following blue hyperlinks for further amplification:
- History
- 1977–1983: Origins
1983–1990: As a premium channel and early years
1990–1997: As a hybrid premium/basic channel
1997–2002: Relaunch and popularity beginnings
2002–2007: Peak
62007–2013: Focus on original series and big ratings
2014–2015: Lack of animated series and ratings decline
2016: Return to animation, single-camera programming, acquired series
- 1977–1983: Origins
- Programming
- Related services
- Other services
- Criticism and controversies
- Video games
- International
List of Traditional Children Games
YouTube Video of kids playing Leapfrog
Pictured: LEFT: girls skipping rope; RIGHT: kids playing Limbo
Click here for a list of traditional children games.
This is a list of games that used to be played by children quite some time ago, some of which are still being played now. Traditional children's games do not include commercial products such as board games, but do include games which require props such as hopscotch or marbles. "'Traditional' games", have, "not only failed to disappear, but have also evolved over time into new versions."
Traditional children's games are defined, "as those that are played informally with minimal equipment, that children learn by example from other children, and that can be played without reference to written rules.
These games are usually played by children between the ages of 7 and 12, with some latitude on both ends of the age range."
"Children's traditional games (also called folk games) are those that are passed from child to child, generation to generation, informally by word of mouth," and most children's games include at least two of the following six features in different proportion: physical skill, strategy, chance, repetition of patterns, creativity, and vertigo.
This is a list of games that used to be played by children quite some time ago, some of which are still being played now. Traditional children's games do not include commercial products such as board games, but do include games which require props such as hopscotch or marbles. "'Traditional' games", have, "not only failed to disappear, but have also evolved over time into new versions."
Traditional children's games are defined, "as those that are played informally with minimal equipment, that children learn by example from other children, and that can be played without reference to written rules.
These games are usually played by children between the ages of 7 and 12, with some latitude on both ends of the age range."
"Children's traditional games (also called folk games) are those that are passed from child to child, generation to generation, informally by word of mouth," and most children's games include at least two of the following six features in different proportion: physical skill, strategy, chance, repetition of patterns, creativity, and vertigo.
Board Games for Children including a List of Games
YouTube Video: How to Play Candy Land! A Fun Board Game! with Kinder Playtime Kids!
Pictured: Children playing board games
Click here for a list of Children's Board Games.
A board game is a tabletop game that involves counters or pieces moved or placed on a pre-marked surface or "board", according to a set of rules. Some games are based on pure strategy, but many contain an element of chance; and some are purely chance, with no element of skill.
Games usually have a goal that a player aims to achieve. Early board games represented a battle between two armies, and most modern board games are still based on defeating opposing players in terms of counters, winning position, or accrual of points.
There are many varieties of board games. Their representation of real-life situations can range from having no inherent theme, like checkers, to having a specific theme and narrative, like Cluedo.
Rules can range from the very simple, like Tic-tac-toe, to those describing a game universe in great detail, like Dungeons & Dragons – although most of the latter are role-playing games where the board is secondary to the game, serving to help visualize the game scenario.
The time required to learn to play or master a game varies greatly from game to game, but is not necessarily correlated with the number or complexity of rules; games like chess or go possess relatively simple rulesets, but have great strategic depth.
A board game is a tabletop game that involves counters or pieces moved or placed on a pre-marked surface or "board", according to a set of rules. Some games are based on pure strategy, but many contain an element of chance; and some are purely chance, with no element of skill.
Games usually have a goal that a player aims to achieve. Early board games represented a battle between two armies, and most modern board games are still based on defeating opposing players in terms of counters, winning position, or accrual of points.
There are many varieties of board games. Their representation of real-life situations can range from having no inherent theme, like checkers, to having a specific theme and narrative, like Cluedo.
Rules can range from the very simple, like Tic-tac-toe, to those describing a game universe in great detail, like Dungeons & Dragons – although most of the latter are role-playing games where the board is secondary to the game, serving to help visualize the game scenario.
The time required to learn to play or master a game varies greatly from game to game, but is not necessarily correlated with the number or complexity of rules; games like chess or go possess relatively simple rulesets, but have great strategic depth.
How to Block Inappropriate Content from being viewed by Children
YouTube Video: How to set up parental controls on Android devices
Pictured: How to Set Up and Configure Parental Controls for LEFT: Windows 10 PC; RIGHT: Mac Computer
Parental controls are features which may be included in digital television services, computer and video games, mobile devices and software.
Parental controls fall into roughly four categories:
Another feature of parental controls is the ability to blocking rating, such as Parental Advisory, TV-MA for TV, R and NC-17 for MPAA, and M and AO for ESRB.
Content Filters were the first popular type of parental controls to limit access to Internet content. Television stations also began to introduce V-Chip technology to limit access to television content.
Modern usage controls are able to restrict a range of explicit content such as explicit songs and movies. They are also able to turn devices off during specific times of the day, limiting the volume output of devices, and with GPS technology becoming affordable, it is now possible to easily locate devices such as mobile phones.
Overview:
Several techniques exist aimed at creating parental controls for blocking websites. Add-on parental control software may monitor API in order to observe applications such as a web browser or Internet chat application and to intervene according to certain criteria, such as a match in a database of banned words.
Virtually all parental control software includes a password or other form of authentication to prevent unauthorized users from disabling it.
Techniques involving a proxy server are also used. A web browser is set to send requests for web content to the proxy server rather than directly to the web server intended. The proxy server then fetches the web page from the web server on the web browser's behalf and passes on the content to the browser.
Proxy servers can inspect the data being sent and received and intervene depending on various criteria relating to content of the page or the URL being requested, for example, using a database of banned words or banned URLs.
The proxy method's major disadvantage is that it requires that the client application to be configured to utilize the proxy, and if it is possible for the user to reconfigure applications to access the Internet directly rather than going through the proxy then this control is easily bypassed. Proxy servers themselves may be used to circumvent parental controls. There are other techniques used to bypass parental controls.
Computer usage management method, unlike content filters, is focused on empowering the parents to balance the computing environment for children by regulating gaming. The main idea of these applications is to allow parents to enforce learning component into the computing time of children, where children must earn gaming time while working through educational contents.
Lately network based parental control devices have emerged. These devices working as a firewall router use packet filtering, DNS Response Policy Zone (RPZ) and Deep Packet Inspection (DPI) methods to block inappropriate web content. These methods have been used in commercial and governmental communication networks.
Parental controls on mobile devices:
The increased use of mobile devices that include full featured internet browsers and downloadable applications has created a demand for parental controls on these mobile, smart devices.
In November 2007, Verizon was the first carrier to offer age-appropriate content filters as well as the first to offer content-generic content filters recognizing that mobile devices were used to access all manner of content from movies and music to short-code programs and websites.
In June 2009, in iPhone OS 3.0, Apple was the first company to provide a built in mechanism on mobile devices to create age brackets for users that would block unwanted applications from being downloaded to the device.
Mobile device software enables parents to restrict which applications their child can access while also allowing parents to monitor text messages, phone logs, MMS pictures, and other transactions occurring on their child's mobile device, to enable parents to set time limit on the usage of mobile devices, and to track the exact location of their children as well as monitor calls in and out and the content of texts in and out.
Methods to bypass Parental Controls:
Several methods of bypassing parental controls can be used.
Filtering that occurs outside of the individuals computer (such as at the router) cannot be bypassed using the above methods (except for 'Incognito/InPrivate' modes). However:
Video game systems that have used parental controls includ:
Operating Systems with Parental Controls include:
Below is a list of popular operating systems which currently have built-in parental control features:
See also:
Parental controls fall into roughly four categories:
- content filters, which limit access to age inappropriate content;
- usage controls, which constrain the usage of these devices such as placing time-limits on usage or forbidding certain types of usage;
- computer usage management tools, which enforces the use of certain software;
- and, monitoring, which can track location and activity when using the devices.
Another feature of parental controls is the ability to blocking rating, such as Parental Advisory, TV-MA for TV, R and NC-17 for MPAA, and M and AO for ESRB.
Content Filters were the first popular type of parental controls to limit access to Internet content. Television stations also began to introduce V-Chip technology to limit access to television content.
Modern usage controls are able to restrict a range of explicit content such as explicit songs and movies. They are also able to turn devices off during specific times of the day, limiting the volume output of devices, and with GPS technology becoming affordable, it is now possible to easily locate devices such as mobile phones.
Overview:
Several techniques exist aimed at creating parental controls for blocking websites. Add-on parental control software may monitor API in order to observe applications such as a web browser or Internet chat application and to intervene according to certain criteria, such as a match in a database of banned words.
Virtually all parental control software includes a password or other form of authentication to prevent unauthorized users from disabling it.
Techniques involving a proxy server are also used. A web browser is set to send requests for web content to the proxy server rather than directly to the web server intended. The proxy server then fetches the web page from the web server on the web browser's behalf and passes on the content to the browser.
Proxy servers can inspect the data being sent and received and intervene depending on various criteria relating to content of the page or the URL being requested, for example, using a database of banned words or banned URLs.
The proxy method's major disadvantage is that it requires that the client application to be configured to utilize the proxy, and if it is possible for the user to reconfigure applications to access the Internet directly rather than going through the proxy then this control is easily bypassed. Proxy servers themselves may be used to circumvent parental controls. There are other techniques used to bypass parental controls.
Computer usage management method, unlike content filters, is focused on empowering the parents to balance the computing environment for children by regulating gaming. The main idea of these applications is to allow parents to enforce learning component into the computing time of children, where children must earn gaming time while working through educational contents.
Lately network based parental control devices have emerged. These devices working as a firewall router use packet filtering, DNS Response Policy Zone (RPZ) and Deep Packet Inspection (DPI) methods to block inappropriate web content. These methods have been used in commercial and governmental communication networks.
Parental controls on mobile devices:
The increased use of mobile devices that include full featured internet browsers and downloadable applications has created a demand for parental controls on these mobile, smart devices.
In November 2007, Verizon was the first carrier to offer age-appropriate content filters as well as the first to offer content-generic content filters recognizing that mobile devices were used to access all manner of content from movies and music to short-code programs and websites.
In June 2009, in iPhone OS 3.0, Apple was the first company to provide a built in mechanism on mobile devices to create age brackets for users that would block unwanted applications from being downloaded to the device.
Mobile device software enables parents to restrict which applications their child can access while also allowing parents to monitor text messages, phone logs, MMS pictures, and other transactions occurring on their child's mobile device, to enable parents to set time limit on the usage of mobile devices, and to track the exact location of their children as well as monitor calls in and out and the content of texts in and out.
Methods to bypass Parental Controls:
Several methods of bypassing parental controls can be used.
- If the filtering software is located locally within the computer, all Internet software can be easily bypassed by booting up the computer in question from alternative media, with an alternative operating system or (on Windows) in Safe Mode. However, if the computer's BIOS is configured to disallow booting from removable media, and if changes to the BIOS are prohibited without proper authentication, then booting into an alternative operating system is not available without circumventing BIOS security by partially disassembling the computer and resetting BIOS configuration using a button or jumper, or removing and replacing the internal button cell battery.
- Using external proxy servers or other servers. The user sends requests to the external server which retrieves content on the user's behalf. Filtering software may then never be able to know which URLs the user is accessing, as all communications are with the one external server and filtering software never sees any communications with the web servers from which content really originated. To counter this, filtering software may also block access to popular proxies. Additionally, filtering systems which only permit access to a set of allowed URLs (whitelisting) will not permit access anything outside this list, including proxy servers.
- Resetting passwords using exploits.
- Modifying the software's files,
- and Brute-force attacks on software passwords.
- 'Incognito/InPrivate' modes with the 'image' tab: Users, parental control software, and parental control routers may use 'safe search' (SafeSearch) to enforce filtering at most major search engines. However, in most browsers a user may select 'Incognito' or 'InPrivate' browsing, enter search terms for content, and select the 'image' tab to effectively bypass 'safe search' and many parental control filters. See below for router based considerations and solutions.
Filtering that occurs outside of the individuals computer (such as at the router) cannot be bypassed using the above methods (except for 'Incognito/InPrivate' modes). However:
- The major search engines cache and serve content on their own servers. As a result, domain filters such as many third party DNS servers, also fail to filter the 'Incognito/InPrivate' with 'image' tab.
- Most commercially available routers with parental controls do not enforce safe search at the router, and therefore do not filter the 'Incognito/InPrivate' with 'image' tab.
- Safe search may be enforced at a DNS server or router. For google, for example, see https://support.google.com/websearch/answer/186669?hl=en. Similar options also exist for Bing and Yahoo. Techno-savvy users may use dd-WRT on a compatible router to enforce safe search at the router. However, this requires specialized knowledge beyond most end users expertise.
- Less knowledgeable users may purchase easy to install routers that automatically enforce safe search, in addition to other parental controls.
Video game systems that have used parental controls includ:
- PlayStation 4
- PlayStation 3
- PlayStation 2 (only for DVDs)
- PlayStation Vita
- PlayStation Portable
- Xbox (console)
- Xbox 360
- Xbox One
- Nintendo DSi
- Nintendo 3DS
- Wii
- Wii U
- GameStick
- Nintendo DS
Operating Systems with Parental Controls include:
Below is a list of popular operating systems which currently have built-in parental control features:
- Android operating system
- iOS
- Mac OS X (10.3 and later)
- Windows (Vista and later)
See also:
- Internet censorship
- List of parental control software
- Motion picture rating system
- Television rating system
- Videogame Rating Council
Scouting in the Unites States including Cub Scouts, Boy Scouts, and Girl Scouts
YouTube Video: Boy Scouts reciting the Pledge of Allegiance
Pictured: Logos for LEFT to RIGHT: Cub Scouts; Boy Scouts, and Girl Scouts
Scouting in the United States is dominated by the 2.7 million-member Boy Scouts of America and the Girl Scouts of the USA and other associations that are recognized by one of the international Scouting organizations. There are also a few smaller, independent groups that are considered to be "Scout-like" or otherwise Scouting related.
For more about Scouting in general, click here.
___________________________________________________________________________
Cub Scouting is part of the Scouting program of the Boy Scouts of America (BSA), available to boys from first through fifth grade, or 7 to 11½ years of age and their families.
Its membership is the largest of the three BSA divisions (Cub Scouting, Boy Scouting, and Venturing). Cub Scouting is part of the worldwide Scouting movement and aims to promote character development, citizenship training, and personal fitness.
For more about Cub Scouts, click here.
___________________________________________________________________________
The Boy Scouts of America (BSA) is one of the largest youth organizations in the United States, with more than 2.4 million youth members and nearly one million adult volunteers.
Since its founding in 1910 as part of the international Scout Movement, more than 110 million Americans have been at some point members of the BSA.
The BSA's goal is to train youth in responsible citizenship, character development, and self-reliance through participation in a wide range of outdoor activities, educational programs, and, at older age levels, career-oriented programs in partnership with community organizations.
The BSA is a constituent member of the World Organization of the Scout Movement. The traditional Scouting divisions are Cub Scouting for boys ages 7 to 10½ years (see above), Boy Scouting for boys ages 10½ to 18 and Venturing for young men and women ages 14 (or 13 and having completed the 8th grade) through 21.
The BSA operates traditional Scouting by chartering local organizations, such as churches, clubs, civic associations, or educational organization, to implement the Scouting program for youth within their communities.
For more about Boy Scouts, click here.
___________________________________________________________________________
The Girl Scouts of the United States of America (GSUSA), commonly called in America as simply the Girl Scouts is a youth organization for girls in the United States and American girls living abroad. Membership is organized according to grade, with activities designed for each level. The GSUSA is a member of the World Association of Girl Guides and Girl Scouts (WAGGGS). It accepts girls from any background.
For more about Girl Scouts, click here.
For more about Scouting in general, click here.
___________________________________________________________________________
Cub Scouting is part of the Scouting program of the Boy Scouts of America (BSA), available to boys from first through fifth grade, or 7 to 11½ years of age and their families.
Its membership is the largest of the three BSA divisions (Cub Scouting, Boy Scouting, and Venturing). Cub Scouting is part of the worldwide Scouting movement and aims to promote character development, citizenship training, and personal fitness.
For more about Cub Scouts, click here.
___________________________________________________________________________
The Boy Scouts of America (BSA) is one of the largest youth organizations in the United States, with more than 2.4 million youth members and nearly one million adult volunteers.
Since its founding in 1910 as part of the international Scout Movement, more than 110 million Americans have been at some point members of the BSA.
The BSA's goal is to train youth in responsible citizenship, character development, and self-reliance through participation in a wide range of outdoor activities, educational programs, and, at older age levels, career-oriented programs in partnership with community organizations.
The BSA is a constituent member of the World Organization of the Scout Movement. The traditional Scouting divisions are Cub Scouting for boys ages 7 to 10½ years (see above), Boy Scouting for boys ages 10½ to 18 and Venturing for young men and women ages 14 (or 13 and having completed the 8th grade) through 21.
The BSA operates traditional Scouting by chartering local organizations, such as churches, clubs, civic associations, or educational organization, to implement the Scouting program for youth within their communities.
For more about Boy Scouts, click here.
___________________________________________________________________________
The Girl Scouts of the United States of America (GSUSA), commonly called in America as simply the Girl Scouts is a youth organization for girls in the United States and American girls living abroad. Membership is organized according to grade, with activities designed for each level. The GSUSA is a member of the World Association of Girl Guides and Girl Scouts (WAGGGS). It accepts girls from any background.
For more about Girl Scouts, click here.
Adoption
YouTube video from the NBC TV Series "This is Us" when a white family adopts an African American baby
Adoption is a process whereby a person assumes the parenting of another, usually a child, and or animal from that person's biological or legal parent or parents, and, in so doing, permanently transfers all rights and responsibilities, along with filiation, from the biological parent or parents.
Unlike guardianship or other systems designed for the care of the young, adoption is intended to effect a permanent change in status and as such requires societal recognition, either through legal or religious sanction.
Historically, some societies have enacted specific laws governing adoption; where others have tried to achieve adoption through less formal means, notably via contracts that specified inheritance rights and parental responsibilities without an accompanying transfer of filiation.
Modern systems of adoption, arising in the 20th century, tend to be governed by comprehensive statutes and regulations.
Click on any of the following blue hyperlinks for further amplification:
- History: Modern period
- Contemporary adoption
- Parenting and development of adoptees
- Development of adoptees
- Reform and reunion trends
- Cultural variations
- Adoption as a human right
- Homecoming Day
- See also: Main article: Outline of adoption
- Adoption by celebrities
- Adoption in the United States
- Affiliation
- Attachment disorder
- Attachment theory
- Attachment therapy
- Child welfare
- Child-selling
- Effects of adoption on the birth-mother
- Genetic sexual attraction
- National Adoption Day
- Notable orphans and foundlings
- Parental leave
- Putative father registry
- Reactive attachment disorder
- Social work
Foster Care in the United States
YouTube Video: Children in Foster Care
Pictured below: (L) Length of time spent in foster care as of 2010; (R) A chart of the breakdown in race/ethnicity for foster children
Foster care is the term used for a system in which a minor who has been made a ward is placed in an institution, group home, or private home of a state certified caregiver referred to as a "foster parent". The placement of the child is usually arranged through the government or a social-service agency. The institution, group home or foster parent is provided compensation for expenses.
The state via the family court and child protection agency stand in loco parentis to the minor, making all legal decisions while the foster parent is responsible for the day-to-day care of said minor. The foster parent is remunerated by the state for their services.
In the United States, foster home licensing requirements vary from state to state, but are generally overseen by each state's Department of Child Protective Services or Human Services.
In some states, counties have this responsibility. Each state's services are monitored by the federal Department of Health and Human Services through reviews such as Child and Family Services Reviews, Title IV-E Foster Care Eligibility Reviews, Adoption and Foster Care Analysis and Reporting System and Statewide Automated Child Welfare Information System Assessment Reviews.
The foster parent licensing process is often similar to the process to become licensed to adopt. It requires preparation classes as well as an application process. The application varies but may include:
Children found to be unable to function in a foster home may be placed in Residential Treatment Centers (RTCs) or other such group homes. In theory, the focus of treatment in such facilities is to prepare the child for a return to a foster home, to an adoptive home, or to the birth parents when applicable. But two major reviews of the scholarly literature have questioned these facilities' effectiveness.
There are some children in foster care who are difficult to place in permanent homes through the normal adoption process. These children are often said to require "special-needs adoption." In this context, "special needs" can include situations where children have specific chronic medical problems, mental health issues, behavioral problems, and learning disabilities. In some cases, sibling groups, and older children qualify as "special needs." Governments offer a variety of incentives and services to facilitate this class of adoptions.
Statistics:
In 2010, there were 408,425 children in foster care in the United States:
Of 254,114 who exited foster care in 2010:
Of these children, the median length of time spent in foster care was 13.5 months, with:
Click on any of the following blue hyperlinks for more about Foster Care in the United States:
The state via the family court and child protection agency stand in loco parentis to the minor, making all legal decisions while the foster parent is responsible for the day-to-day care of said minor. The foster parent is remunerated by the state for their services.
In the United States, foster home licensing requirements vary from state to state, but are generally overseen by each state's Department of Child Protective Services or Human Services.
In some states, counties have this responsibility. Each state's services are monitored by the federal Department of Health and Human Services through reviews such as Child and Family Services Reviews, Title IV-E Foster Care Eligibility Reviews, Adoption and Foster Care Analysis and Reporting System and Statewide Automated Child Welfare Information System Assessment Reviews.
The foster parent licensing process is often similar to the process to become licensed to adopt. It requires preparation classes as well as an application process. The application varies but may include:
- a minimum age,
- verification that your income allows you to meet your expenses,
- a criminal record check at local, state and federal levels including finger printing and no prior record of child abuse or neglect;
- a reference from a doctor to ensure that all household members are free from diseases that a child could catch and in sufficient health to parent a child
- and letters of reference from an employer and others who know them.
Children found to be unable to function in a foster home may be placed in Residential Treatment Centers (RTCs) or other such group homes. In theory, the focus of treatment in such facilities is to prepare the child for a return to a foster home, to an adoptive home, or to the birth parents when applicable. But two major reviews of the scholarly literature have questioned these facilities' effectiveness.
There are some children in foster care who are difficult to place in permanent homes through the normal adoption process. These children are often said to require "special-needs adoption." In this context, "special needs" can include situations where children have specific chronic medical problems, mental health issues, behavioral problems, and learning disabilities. In some cases, sibling groups, and older children qualify as "special needs." Governments offer a variety of incentives and services to facilitate this class of adoptions.
Statistics:
In 2010, there were 408,425 children in foster care in the United States:
- 48% were in non-relative foster homes,
- 26% were in relative foster homes,
- 9% in institutions,
- 6% in group homes,
- 5% on trial home visits (where the child returns home while under state supervision),
- 4% in preadoptive homes,
- 2% had run away,
- and 1% in supervised independent living.
Of 254,114 who exited foster care in 2010:
- 51% were reunited with parents or caretakers,
- 21% were adopted,
- 11% were emancipated (as minors or by aging out),
- 8% went to live with another relative,
- 6% went to live with a guardian,
- and 3% had other outcomes.
Of these children, the median length of time spent in foster care was 13.5 months, with:
- 13% in care for less than 1 month,
- 33% for 1 to 11 months,
- 24% for 12 to 23 months,
- 12% for 24 to 35 months,
- 10% for 3 to 4 years,
- and 7% for 5 years or more.
Click on any of the following blue hyperlinks for more about Foster Care in the United States:
- Foster Care in California
- Funding and system incentives
- Foster care legislation since 1990
- Constitutional issues
- Abuse and negligence
- See also:
Juvenile Delinquency
YouTube Video: Life in Juvenile Detention
Juvenile delinquency, also known as "juvenile offending", is participation in illegal behavior by minors (juveniles, i.e. individuals younger than the statutory age of majority).
Most legal systems prescribe specific procedures for dealing with juveniles, such as juvenile detention centers, and courts.
A juvenile delinquent in the United States is a person who is typically below 18 (17 in New York, North Carolina, New Hampshire, and Texas) years of age and commits an act that otherwise would have been charged as a crime if they were an adult. Depending on the type and severity of the offense committed, it is possible for people under 18 to be charged and treated as adults.
A higher proportion of youth have experienced arrests by their early 20s than in the past, although some scholars have concluded this may reflect more aggressive criminal justice and zero-tolerance policies rather than changes in youth behavior. Juvenile crimes can range from status offenses (such as underage smoking), to property crimes and violent crimes.
Youth violence rates in the United States have dropped to approximately 12% of peak rates in 1993 according to official US government statistics, suggesting that most juvenile offending is non-violent. However, juvenile offending can be considered normative adolescent behavior. This is because most teens tend to offend by committing non-violent crimes, only once or a few times, and only during adolescence.
Repeated and/or violent offending is likely to lead to later and more violent offenses. When this happens, the offender often displayed antisocial behavior even before reaching adolescence.
Juvenile delinquency or offences can be separated into three categories:
According to the developmental research of Moffitt (2006), there are two different types of offenders that emerge in adolescence
Because most teenagers tend to show some form of antisocial or delinquent behavior during adolescence, it is important to account for these behaviors in childhood in order to determine whether they will be life-course-persistent offenders or adolescence-limited offenders.
Although adolescence-limited offenders tend to drop all criminal activity once they enter adulthood and show less pathology than life-course-persistent offenders, they still show more mental health, substance abuse, and finance problems, both in adolescence and adulthood, than those who were never delinquent.
For further amplification, click on any of the following blue hyperlinks:
Most legal systems prescribe specific procedures for dealing with juveniles, such as juvenile detention centers, and courts.
A juvenile delinquent in the United States is a person who is typically below 18 (17 in New York, North Carolina, New Hampshire, and Texas) years of age and commits an act that otherwise would have been charged as a crime if they were an adult. Depending on the type and severity of the offense committed, it is possible for people under 18 to be charged and treated as adults.
A higher proportion of youth have experienced arrests by their early 20s than in the past, although some scholars have concluded this may reflect more aggressive criminal justice and zero-tolerance policies rather than changes in youth behavior. Juvenile crimes can range from status offenses (such as underage smoking), to property crimes and violent crimes.
Youth violence rates in the United States have dropped to approximately 12% of peak rates in 1993 according to official US government statistics, suggesting that most juvenile offending is non-violent. However, juvenile offending can be considered normative adolescent behavior. This is because most teens tend to offend by committing non-violent crimes, only once or a few times, and only during adolescence.
Repeated and/or violent offending is likely to lead to later and more violent offenses. When this happens, the offender often displayed antisocial behavior even before reaching adolescence.
Juvenile delinquency or offences can be separated into three categories:
- delinquency, crimes committed by minors, which are dealt with by the juvenile courts and justice system;
- criminal behavior, crimes dealt with by the criminal justice system;
- status offenses, offenses that are only classified as such because one is a minor, such as truancy, also dealt with by the juvenile courts.
According to the developmental research of Moffitt (2006), there are two different types of offenders that emerge in adolescence
- One is the repeat offender, referred to as the life-course-persistent offender, who begins offending or showing antisocial/aggressive behavior in adolescence (or even childhood) and continues into adulthood;
- and the age specific offender, referred to as the adolescence-limited offender, for whom juvenile offending or delinquency begins and ends during their period of adolescence.
Because most teenagers tend to show some form of antisocial or delinquent behavior during adolescence, it is important to account for these behaviors in childhood in order to determine whether they will be life-course-persistent offenders or adolescence-limited offenders.
Although adolescence-limited offenders tend to drop all criminal activity once they enter adulthood and show less pathology than life-course-persistent offenders, they still show more mental health, substance abuse, and finance problems, both in adolescence and adulthood, than those who were never delinquent.
For further amplification, click on any of the following blue hyperlinks:
- Gender roles and differences by sex
- Racial differences
- Risk factors
- Applicable crime theories
- Mental/conduct disorders
- Prevention
- Critique of risk factor research
- Juvenile sex crimes
- See also:
- Anti-social behavior order
- Deviance (sociology)
- Juvenile delinquency in the United States
- Kazan phenomenon
- Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention
- Person in need of supervision
- Sex offender registries in the United States
- Solitary confinement of juvenile offenders
- Status offense
- Teen courts
- Victimology
- Youth court
- Young offender
Pediatrics
YouTube Video Pediatric Exam - School age child
Pediatrics is the branch of medicine that deals with the medical care of infants, children, and adolescents, and the age limit usually ranges from birth up to 18 years of age (in some places until completion of secondary education, and until age 21 in the United States).
A medical practitioner who specializes in this area is known as a pediatrician, or paediatrician.
Pediatricians work both in hospitals, particularly those working in its specialized subfields such as neonatology, and as primary care physicians who specialize in children.
Click on any of the following blue hyperlinks for further amplification:
A medical practitioner who specializes in this area is known as a pediatrician, or paediatrician.
Pediatricians work both in hospitals, particularly those working in its specialized subfields such as neonatology, and as primary care physicians who specialize in children.
Click on any of the following blue hyperlinks for further amplification:
- History
- Differences between adult and pediatric medicine
- Training of pediatricians
- Subspecialties
- See also:
Childhood Diseases and Disorders
YouTube Video of Childhood Blood Diseases by the University of Chicago Medicine
Pictured: Children with LEFT: Measles; RIGHT: Chickenpox
The term childhood disease refers to disease that is contracted or becomes symptomatic before the age of 18 years old. Many of these diseases can also be contracted by adults.
Click here for a list of childhood diseases and disorders based on age group.
Click here for a list of childhood diseases and disorders based on age group.
Child Nutrition Programs
YouTube Video Teach Your Kids About Good Nutrition
In the United States, the Child Nutrition Programs are a grouping of programs funded by the federal government to support meal and milk service programs for children in schools, residential and day care facilities, family and group day care homes, and summer day camps, and for low-income pregnant and postpartum women, infants, and children under age 5 in local WIC clinics.
Programs include school lunch, school breakfast, summer food service, special milk, commodity distribution, after-school care and Department of Defense overseas dependents school programs, and the special supplemental nutrition program for women, infants and children (WIC).
These programs are authorized under the Richard B. Russell National School Lunch Act (P.L. 79-396, as amended) and the Child Nutrition Act of 1966; (P.L. 89-642, as amended, 42 U.S.C. 1771 et seq.) are financed by annual agricultural appropriations laws; and are administered by the Food and Nutrition Service (FNS) of USDA.
Changes to the authorizing statutes generally are made by the Agriculture Nutrition and Forestry Committee in the Senate. In the House, the Education and the Workforce Committee deals with most changes to child nutrition program authorizing statutes, although the Agriculture Committee usually is involved when proposed changes concern agricultural interests such as commodity distribution, food restrictions, and the Farmers Market Nutrition Program.
Programs include school lunch, school breakfast, summer food service, special milk, commodity distribution, after-school care and Department of Defense overseas dependents school programs, and the special supplemental nutrition program for women, infants and children (WIC).
These programs are authorized under the Richard B. Russell National School Lunch Act (P.L. 79-396, as amended) and the Child Nutrition Act of 1966; (P.L. 89-642, as amended, 42 U.S.C. 1771 et seq.) are financed by annual agricultural appropriations laws; and are administered by the Food and Nutrition Service (FNS) of USDA.
Changes to the authorizing statutes generally are made by the Agriculture Nutrition and Forestry Committee in the Senate. In the House, the Education and the Workforce Committee deals with most changes to child nutrition program authorizing statutes, although the Agriculture Committee usually is involved when proposed changes concern agricultural interests such as commodity distribution, food restrictions, and the Farmers Market Nutrition Program.
Childhood Obesity
YouTube Video: Childhood Obesity reported by CNN
Childhood obesity is a condition where excess body fat negatively affects a child's health or well-being. As methods to determine body fat directly are difficult, the diagnosis of obesity is often based on BMI. Due to the rising prevalence of obesity in children and its many adverse health effects it is being recognized as a serious public health concern. The term overweight rather than obese is often used in children as it is less stigmatizing.
Body mass index (BMI) is acceptable for determining obesity for children two years of age and older. It is determined by the ratio of weight to height.
The normal range for BMI in children vary with age and sex. While a BMI above the 85th percentile is defined as overweight, a BMI greater than or equal to the 95th percentile is defined as obesity by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. It has published tables for determining this in children.
The US Preventive Service Task Force reported that not all children with a high BMI need to lose weight though. High BMI can identify a possible weight problem, but does not differentiate between fat or lean tissue. Additionally, BMI may mistakenly rule out some children who do have excess adipose tissue. It is therefore beneficial to supplement the reliability of a BMI diagnosis with additional screening tools such as adipose tissue or skin fold measurements.
The first problems to occur in obese children are usually emotional or psychological. Obese children often experience teasing by their peers. Some are harassed or discriminated against by their own family. Stereotypes abound and may lead to low self-esteem and depression.
Childhood obesity however can also lead to life-threatening conditions including:
The early physical effects of obesity in adolescence include, almost all of the child’s organs being affected, gallstones, hepatitis, sleep apnoea and increased intracranial pressure. Overweight children are also more likely to grow up to be overweight adults. Obesity during adolescence has been found to increase mortality rates during adulthood.
Click on any of the following blue hyperlinks for further amplification:
Body mass index (BMI) is acceptable for determining obesity for children two years of age and older. It is determined by the ratio of weight to height.
The normal range for BMI in children vary with age and sex. While a BMI above the 85th percentile is defined as overweight, a BMI greater than or equal to the 95th percentile is defined as obesity by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. It has published tables for determining this in children.
The US Preventive Service Task Force reported that not all children with a high BMI need to lose weight though. High BMI can identify a possible weight problem, but does not differentiate between fat or lean tissue. Additionally, BMI may mistakenly rule out some children who do have excess adipose tissue. It is therefore beneficial to supplement the reliability of a BMI diagnosis with additional screening tools such as adipose tissue or skin fold measurements.
The first problems to occur in obese children are usually emotional or psychological. Obese children often experience teasing by their peers. Some are harassed or discriminated against by their own family. Stereotypes abound and may lead to low self-esteem and depression.
Childhood obesity however can also lead to life-threatening conditions including:
- diabetes,
- high blood pressure,
- heart disease,
- sleep problems,
- cancer,
- liver disease,
- early puberty or menarche,
- eating disorders such as anorexia and bulimia,
- skin infections,
- and asthma and other respiratory problems. Asthma severity is not affected by obesity however.
The early physical effects of obesity in adolescence include, almost all of the child’s organs being affected, gallstones, hepatitis, sleep apnoea and increased intracranial pressure. Overweight children are also more likely to grow up to be overweight adults. Obesity during adolescence has been found to increase mortality rates during adulthood.
Click on any of the following blue hyperlinks for further amplification:
- Long-term effects
- Causes
- Prevention
- Management
- Epidemiology: United States
- Research
- See also:
- International Journal of Pediatric Obesity
- Task Force on Childhood Obesity
- Classification of childhood obesity
- Obesity and walking
- Social stigma of obesity
- EPODE International Network, the world's largest obesity-prevention network
Christmas and Santa Claus
YouTube Video: "Santa Claus Is Coming To Town" by Bruce Springsteen
Christmas or Christmas Day is an annual festival commemorating the birth of Jesus Christ, observed most commonly on December 25 as a religious and cultural celebration among billions of people around the world.
A feast central to the Christian liturgical year, it is prepared for by the season of Advent or the Nativity Fast and initiates the season of Christmastide, which historically in the West lasts twelve days and culminates on Twelfth Night; in some traditions, Christmastide includes an Octave.
Christmas Day is a public holiday in many of the world's nations, is celebrated culturally by a large number of non-Christian people, and is an integral part of the holiday season. In several countries, celebrating Christmas Eve on December 24 has the main focus rather than December 25, with gift-giving and sharing a traditional meal with the family.
Santa Claus, also known as Saint Nicholas, Saint Nick, Kris Kringle, Father Christmas, or simply Santa, is a legendary figure of Western culture who is said to bring gifts to the homes of well-behaved ("good" or "nice") children on Christmas Eve (24 December) and the early morning hours of Christmas Day (25 December).
The modern Santa Claus grew out of traditions surrounding the historical Saint Nicholas, a fourth-century Greek bishop and gift-giver of Myra, the British figure of Father Christmas, the Dutch figure of Sinterklaas (himself based on Saint Nicholas), the German figure of the Christkind (a fabulized Christ Child), and the holidays of Twelfth Night and Epiphany and their associated figures of the Three Kings (based on the gift-giving Magi of the Nativity) and Befana.
Santa Claus is generally depicted as a portly, joyous, white-bearded man—sometimes with spectacles—wearing a red coat with white fur collar and cuffs, white fur-cuffed red trousers, and black leather belt and boots and who carries a bag full of gifts for children.
This image became popular in the United States and Canada in the 19th century due to the significant influence of the 1823 poem "A Visit From St. Nicholas" and of caricaturist and political cartoonist Thomas Nast. This image has been maintained and reinforced through song, radio, television, children's books, films, and advertising.
Santa Claus is said to make lists of children throughout the world, categorizing them according to their behavior ("good" and "bad", or "naughty" and "nice") and to deliver presents, including toys, and candy to all of the well-behaved children in the world, and coal to all the misbehaved children, on the single night of Christmas Eve.
Santa accomplishes this feat with the aid of his elves, who make the toys in his workshop at the North Pole, and his flying reindeer, who pull his sleigh. He is commonly portrayed as living at the North Pole and saying "ho ho ho" often.
A feast central to the Christian liturgical year, it is prepared for by the season of Advent or the Nativity Fast and initiates the season of Christmastide, which historically in the West lasts twelve days and culminates on Twelfth Night; in some traditions, Christmastide includes an Octave.
Christmas Day is a public holiday in many of the world's nations, is celebrated culturally by a large number of non-Christian people, and is an integral part of the holiday season. In several countries, celebrating Christmas Eve on December 24 has the main focus rather than December 25, with gift-giving and sharing a traditional meal with the family.
Santa Claus, also known as Saint Nicholas, Saint Nick, Kris Kringle, Father Christmas, or simply Santa, is a legendary figure of Western culture who is said to bring gifts to the homes of well-behaved ("good" or "nice") children on Christmas Eve (24 December) and the early morning hours of Christmas Day (25 December).
The modern Santa Claus grew out of traditions surrounding the historical Saint Nicholas, a fourth-century Greek bishop and gift-giver of Myra, the British figure of Father Christmas, the Dutch figure of Sinterklaas (himself based on Saint Nicholas), the German figure of the Christkind (a fabulized Christ Child), and the holidays of Twelfth Night and Epiphany and their associated figures of the Three Kings (based on the gift-giving Magi of the Nativity) and Befana.
Santa Claus is generally depicted as a portly, joyous, white-bearded man—sometimes with spectacles—wearing a red coat with white fur collar and cuffs, white fur-cuffed red trousers, and black leather belt and boots and who carries a bag full of gifts for children.
This image became popular in the United States and Canada in the 19th century due to the significant influence of the 1823 poem "A Visit From St. Nicholas" and of caricaturist and political cartoonist Thomas Nast. This image has been maintained and reinforced through song, radio, television, children's books, films, and advertising.
Santa Claus is said to make lists of children throughout the world, categorizing them according to their behavior ("good" and "bad", or "naughty" and "nice") and to deliver presents, including toys, and candy to all of the well-behaved children in the world, and coal to all the misbehaved children, on the single night of Christmas Eve.
Santa accomplishes this feat with the aid of his elves, who make the toys in his workshop at the North Pole, and his flying reindeer, who pull his sleigh. He is commonly portrayed as living at the North Pole and saying "ho ho ho" often.
Sports for Children under 18 years of Age
YouTube Video of High School Women's Soccer Game
Pictured: Kids playing L-R: Little League Baseball, Egg-and-spoon race, Tee-ball
This category is for articles about sporting activities for children under the age of eighteen.
Click here for an alphabetical listing by Sport.
Click here for an alphabetical listing by Sport.
Saturday Morning Cartoons for Children
YouTube Video YouTube Video: Sesame Street*: “Let's Be Friends”
*Sesame Street Aired: NET (1969–70); PBS (1970–2016; second run, 2016–present); HBO (first run, 2016–present)
Pictured: Children’s Saturday Morning Cartoons included LEFT: The Smurfs (ABC: 1981-1989); RIGHT: Fat Albert and the Cosby Kids (CBS: 1972-1985)
A Saturday-morning cartoon was the colloquial term for the original animated television programming that was typically scheduled on Saturday mornings in the United States on the major television networks.
The genre's popularity had a broad peak from the late 1960s through approximately the 1980s; after this point, it declined in the mid-late 1990s and 2000s in the face of changing cultural norms, increased competition from formats available at all times, and heavier regulations.
In the last two decades of the genre's existence, Saturday morning cartoons were primarily created and aired to meet educational television mandates. Minor television networks, in addition to the non-commercial PBS in some markets, continue to air animated programming on Saturday while partially meeting those mandates.
In the United States, the generally accepted times for these and other children's programs to air on Saturday mornings were from 8 a.m. to noon Eastern Time. Until the late 1970s, American networks also had a schedule of children's programming on Sunday mornings, though most programs at this time were repeats of Saturday morning shows that were already out of production.
In some markets, some shows were pre-empted in favor of syndicated or other types of local programming. At least one U.S. broadcast television network still aired non-E/I animated programs on Saturday mornings as late as 2014; among the "Big Three" traditional major networks, the last non-educational cartoon (Kim Possible) last aired in 2006. Cable television networks have since then revived the practice of debuting their most popular animated programming on Saturday mornings on a sporadic basis.
Click here for further amplification about Saturday Morning Children Cartoons.
The genre's popularity had a broad peak from the late 1960s through approximately the 1980s; after this point, it declined in the mid-late 1990s and 2000s in the face of changing cultural norms, increased competition from formats available at all times, and heavier regulations.
In the last two decades of the genre's existence, Saturday morning cartoons were primarily created and aired to meet educational television mandates. Minor television networks, in addition to the non-commercial PBS in some markets, continue to air animated programming on Saturday while partially meeting those mandates.
In the United States, the generally accepted times for these and other children's programs to air on Saturday mornings were from 8 a.m. to noon Eastern Time. Until the late 1970s, American networks also had a schedule of children's programming on Sunday mornings, though most programs at this time were repeats of Saturday morning shows that were already out of production.
In some markets, some shows were pre-empted in favor of syndicated or other types of local programming. At least one U.S. broadcast television network still aired non-E/I animated programs on Saturday mornings as late as 2014; among the "Big Three" traditional major networks, the last non-educational cartoon (Kim Possible) last aired in 2006. Cable television networks have since then revived the practice of debuting their most popular animated programming on Saturday mornings on a sporadic basis.
Click here for further amplification about Saturday Morning Children Cartoons.
Amusement Parks including a List of those Parks located in the United States
YouTube Video of the 5 Best Kids Rides at Disney World
Pictured: LEFT: “Jurassic Park – The Ride” (Universal Studios Hollywood); RIGHT: Lion Country Safari (Florida: America's first drive-through wildlife preserve)
Click here for an alphabetical listing by state of Amusement Parks located in the United States.
An amusement park (sometimes referred to as a funfair) or theme park is a group of entertainment attractions, rides, and other events in a location for the enjoyment of large numbers of people.
Amusement parks have a fixed location, as opposed to travelling funfairs and traveling carnivals, and are more elaborate than simple city parks or playgrounds, usually providing attractions meant to cater specifically to certain age groups, as well as some that are aimed towards all ages. Theme parks, a specific type of amusement park, are usually much more intricately themed to a certain subject or group of subjects than normal amusement parks.
In common language, the terms theme park and amusement park are often synonymous. However, a theme park can be regarded as a distinct style of amusement park. A theme park has landscaping, buildings, and attractions that are based on one or more specific themes or stories.
Despite many older parks adding themed rides and areas, qualifying the park as a theme park, the first park built with the original intention of promoting a specific theme, Santa Claus Land, in Santa Claus, Indiana, did not open until 1946. Disneyland, located in Anaheim, California, built around the concept of encapsulating multiple theme parks into a single amusement park is often mistakenly cited as the first themed amusement park, but is instead the park that made the idea popular.
Click here for further amplification.
An amusement park (sometimes referred to as a funfair) or theme park is a group of entertainment attractions, rides, and other events in a location for the enjoyment of large numbers of people.
Amusement parks have a fixed location, as opposed to travelling funfairs and traveling carnivals, and are more elaborate than simple city parks or playgrounds, usually providing attractions meant to cater specifically to certain age groups, as well as some that are aimed towards all ages. Theme parks, a specific type of amusement park, are usually much more intricately themed to a certain subject or group of subjects than normal amusement parks.
In common language, the terms theme park and amusement park are often synonymous. However, a theme park can be regarded as a distinct style of amusement park. A theme park has landscaping, buildings, and attractions that are based on one or more specific themes or stories.
Despite many older parks adding themed rides and areas, qualifying the park as a theme park, the first park built with the original intention of promoting a specific theme, Santa Claus Land, in Santa Claus, Indiana, did not open until 1946. Disneyland, located in Anaheim, California, built around the concept of encapsulating multiple theme parks into a single amusement park is often mistakenly cited as the first themed amusement park, but is instead the park that made the idea popular.
Click here for further amplification.
Youth Organizations located in the United States
YouTube Video of YMCA Camp Surf (Imperial Beach, CA)
Pictured: LEFT: YMCA (Young Men’s Christian Association): RIGHT: YWCA (Young Women’s Christian Association)
Click here for an alphabetical listing of Youth Organizations based in the United States.
Youth programs are particular activities designed to involve people between the ages of 10 and 25. Activities included are generally oriented towards youth development through recreation, social life, prevention, intervention, or education.
During youth programs participants might be involved in sports, religion, community service, youth activism, youth service, or outdoor education. Topics covered include youth empowerment, consumer rights, youth-led media, and youth rights.
Youth program focuses and activities generally depend on the location, culture, class, education, and ideals of the individuals and organizations involved.
These programs are offered by government agencies, nonprofit organizations, and businesses around the world.
See also:
Examples:
Youth programs are particular activities designed to involve people between the ages of 10 and 25. Activities included are generally oriented towards youth development through recreation, social life, prevention, intervention, or education.
During youth programs participants might be involved in sports, religion, community service, youth activism, youth service, or outdoor education. Topics covered include youth empowerment, consumer rights, youth-led media, and youth rights.
Youth program focuses and activities generally depend on the location, culture, class, education, and ideals of the individuals and organizations involved.
These programs are offered by government agencies, nonprofit organizations, and businesses around the world.
See also:
- Youth development
- Youth participation
- List of youth organizations
- Interagency Working Group on Youth Programs
Examples:
- YMCA
- Scouting
- Boys and Girls Club
- National Youth Rights Association
- Snowboard Outreach Society
- Youth model governments
- Elevate (organization)
- buildon
- The First Tee
Motor Skills in Childhood Development
YouTube Video of a child standing up for the first time
Pictured: Stages of Key Gross Motor Skill Development Milestones
Motor skill is when babies start to learn how to control movement of part of the body. This process involves the coordination of muscles.
Due to the immaturity of the human nervous system at the time of birth, children grow continually throughout their childhood years. Many factors contribute to the ability and the rate that children develop their motor skills.
Uncontrollable factors include: genetic or inherited traits and children with learning disorders. A child born to short and overweight parents is much less likely to be an athlete than a child born to two athletically built parents.
Controllable factors include: the environment/society and culture they are born to. A child born in the city is much less likely to have the same opportunities to explore, hike, or trek the outdoors than one born in the rural area.
For a child to successfully develop motor skills, he or she must receive many opportunities to physically explore the surroundings.
Infantile: Early movements made by very young infants are largely reflexive. An infant is exposed to a variety of perceptual experiences through the senses. For example, very young infants have a reflexive response called "rooting". By slightly stroking the side of the infants face, the infant turns its head to that side,frequently resulting in the location of food.
Gradually, the infant learns that certain involuntary, reflexive movements can result in pleasurable sensory experiences, and will attempt to repeat the motions voluntarily in order to experience the pleasurable sensation.
Milestone Developmental Stages are:
Influences on Development include:
Stress and arousal: stress and anxiety is the result of an imbalance between demand and the capacity of the individual. Arousal is the state of interest in the skill. The optimal performance level is moderate stress or arousal. An example of too low of arousal state is an overqualified worker performing repetitive jobs. An example of stress level too high is an anxious pianist at a recital.
Fatigue: the deterioration of performance when a stressful task is continued for a long time, similar to the muscular fatigue experienced when exercised for a rapid rate or lengthy period of time. Fatigue is caused by over-arousal. Fatigue impacts an individual in many ways: perceptual changes in which visual acuity or awareness drops, slowing of performance (reaction times or movements speed), irregularity of timing, and disorganization of performance.
Vigilance: the effect of the loss of vigilance is the same as fatigue, but is otherwise caused by the lack of arousal. Some tasks include jobs that require little work and high attention.
Motor learning is a change, resulting from practice. It often involves improving the accuracy of movements both simple and complex as ones' environment changes.Motor learning is a relatively permanent skill as the capability to respond appropriately is acquired and retained.
The stages to motor learning are the cognitive phase, the associative phase, and the autonomous phase (following):
Cognitive Phase: When a learner is new to a specific task, the primary thought process starts with, “What needs to be done?” Considerable cognitive activity is required so that the learner can determine appropriate strategies to adequately reflect the desired goal. Good strategies are retained and inefficient strategies are discarded. The performance is greatly improved in a short amount of time.
Associative Phase: the learner has determined the most effective way to do the task and starts to make subtle adjustments in performance. Improvements are more gradual and movements become more consistent. This phase can last for a long time. The skills in this phase are fluent, efficient and aesthetically pleasing.
Autonomous Phase: this phase may take several months to years to reach. The phase is dubbed “autonomous” because the performer can now “automatically” complete the task without having to pay any attention to performing it. Examples include walking and talking or sight reading while doing simple arithmetic.
Law of Effect:
Motor skill acquisition has long been defined in the scientific community as an energy-intensive form of stimulus-response (S-R) learning that results in robust neuronal modifications.
In 1898, Thorndike proposed the law of effect, which states that, the association between some action (R) and some environmental condition (S) is enhanced when the action (R) is followed by a satisfying outcome (O).
For instance, if an infant motions his right hand and left leg in just the right way, he can perform a crawling motion, thereby producing the satisfying outcome of increasing his mobility. Because of the satisfying outcome, association between being on all fours and these particular arm and leg motions are enhanced.
Further, a dissatisfying outcome (O) weakens the S-R association. For instance, when a toddler contracts certain muscles, resulting in a painful fall, the child will decrease the association between these muscle contractions and the environmental condition of standing on two feet.
Feedback:
During the learning process of a motor skill, feedback is the positive or negative response that tells the learner how well the task was completed. Inherent feedback: after completing the skill, inherent feedback is the sensory information that tells the learner how well the task was completed.
A basketball player will note that he or she made a mistake when the ball misses the hoop. Another example is a diver knowing that a mistake was made when the entrance into the water is painful and undesirable. Augmented feedback: in contrast to inherent feedback, augmented feedback is information that supplements or “augments” the inherent feedback.
For example, when a person is driving over a speed limit and is pulled over by the police. Although the car did not do any harm, the policeman gives augmented feedback to the driver in order for him to drive more safely. Another example is a private tutor for a new student of a field of study.
Augmented feedback decreases the amount of time to master the motor skill and increases the performance level of the prospect.
Transfer of motor skills: the gain or loss in the capability for performance in one task as a result of practice and experience on some other task. An example would be the comparison of initial skill of a tennis player and non-tennis player when playing table tennis for the first time.
An example of a negative transfer is if it takes longer for a typist to adjust to a randomly assigned letters of the keyboard compared to a new typist. Retention: the performance level of a particular skill after a period of no use.
For further amplification, click on any of the following blue hyperlinks:
Due to the immaturity of the human nervous system at the time of birth, children grow continually throughout their childhood years. Many factors contribute to the ability and the rate that children develop their motor skills.
Uncontrollable factors include: genetic or inherited traits and children with learning disorders. A child born to short and overweight parents is much less likely to be an athlete than a child born to two athletically built parents.
Controllable factors include: the environment/society and culture they are born to. A child born in the city is much less likely to have the same opportunities to explore, hike, or trek the outdoors than one born in the rural area.
For a child to successfully develop motor skills, he or she must receive many opportunities to physically explore the surroundings.
Infantile: Early movements made by very young infants are largely reflexive. An infant is exposed to a variety of perceptual experiences through the senses. For example, very young infants have a reflexive response called "rooting". By slightly stroking the side of the infants face, the infant turns its head to that side,frequently resulting in the location of food.
Gradually, the infant learns that certain involuntary, reflexive movements can result in pleasurable sensory experiences, and will attempt to repeat the motions voluntarily in order to experience the pleasurable sensation.
Milestone Developmental Stages are:
- 6 months – can sit straight
- 12 months – takes first steps
- 24 months – can jump
- 36 months – can cut with scissors; runs on toes
Influences on Development include:
Stress and arousal: stress and anxiety is the result of an imbalance between demand and the capacity of the individual. Arousal is the state of interest in the skill. The optimal performance level is moderate stress or arousal. An example of too low of arousal state is an overqualified worker performing repetitive jobs. An example of stress level too high is an anxious pianist at a recital.
Fatigue: the deterioration of performance when a stressful task is continued for a long time, similar to the muscular fatigue experienced when exercised for a rapid rate or lengthy period of time. Fatigue is caused by over-arousal. Fatigue impacts an individual in many ways: perceptual changes in which visual acuity or awareness drops, slowing of performance (reaction times or movements speed), irregularity of timing, and disorganization of performance.
Vigilance: the effect of the loss of vigilance is the same as fatigue, but is otherwise caused by the lack of arousal. Some tasks include jobs that require little work and high attention.
Motor learning is a change, resulting from practice. It often involves improving the accuracy of movements both simple and complex as ones' environment changes.Motor learning is a relatively permanent skill as the capability to respond appropriately is acquired and retained.
The stages to motor learning are the cognitive phase, the associative phase, and the autonomous phase (following):
Cognitive Phase: When a learner is new to a specific task, the primary thought process starts with, “What needs to be done?” Considerable cognitive activity is required so that the learner can determine appropriate strategies to adequately reflect the desired goal. Good strategies are retained and inefficient strategies are discarded. The performance is greatly improved in a short amount of time.
Associative Phase: the learner has determined the most effective way to do the task and starts to make subtle adjustments in performance. Improvements are more gradual and movements become more consistent. This phase can last for a long time. The skills in this phase are fluent, efficient and aesthetically pleasing.
Autonomous Phase: this phase may take several months to years to reach. The phase is dubbed “autonomous” because the performer can now “automatically” complete the task without having to pay any attention to performing it. Examples include walking and talking or sight reading while doing simple arithmetic.
Law of Effect:
Motor skill acquisition has long been defined in the scientific community as an energy-intensive form of stimulus-response (S-R) learning that results in robust neuronal modifications.
In 1898, Thorndike proposed the law of effect, which states that, the association between some action (R) and some environmental condition (S) is enhanced when the action (R) is followed by a satisfying outcome (O).
For instance, if an infant motions his right hand and left leg in just the right way, he can perform a crawling motion, thereby producing the satisfying outcome of increasing his mobility. Because of the satisfying outcome, association between being on all fours and these particular arm and leg motions are enhanced.
Further, a dissatisfying outcome (O) weakens the S-R association. For instance, when a toddler contracts certain muscles, resulting in a painful fall, the child will decrease the association between these muscle contractions and the environmental condition of standing on two feet.
Feedback:
During the learning process of a motor skill, feedback is the positive or negative response that tells the learner how well the task was completed. Inherent feedback: after completing the skill, inherent feedback is the sensory information that tells the learner how well the task was completed.
A basketball player will note that he or she made a mistake when the ball misses the hoop. Another example is a diver knowing that a mistake was made when the entrance into the water is painful and undesirable. Augmented feedback: in contrast to inherent feedback, augmented feedback is information that supplements or “augments” the inherent feedback.
For example, when a person is driving over a speed limit and is pulled over by the police. Although the car did not do any harm, the policeman gives augmented feedback to the driver in order for him to drive more safely. Another example is a private tutor for a new student of a field of study.
Augmented feedback decreases the amount of time to master the motor skill and increases the performance level of the prospect.
Transfer of motor skills: the gain or loss in the capability for performance in one task as a result of practice and experience on some other task. An example would be the comparison of initial skill of a tennis player and non-tennis player when playing table tennis for the first time.
An example of a negative transfer is if it takes longer for a typist to adjust to a randomly assigned letters of the keyboard compared to a new typist. Retention: the performance level of a particular skill after a period of no use.
For further amplification, click on any of the following blue hyperlinks:
Puberty
YouTube Video: How to Talk with Your Child about Sex (by Planned Parenthood)
Puberty is the process of physical changes through which a child's body matures into an adult body capable of sexual reproduction. It is initiated by hormonal signals from the brain to the gonads: the ovaries in a girl, the testes in a boy.
In response to the signals, the gonads produce hormones that stimulate libido and the growth, function, and transformation of the brain, bones, muscle, blood, skin, hair, breasts, and sex organs. Physical growth—height and weight—accelerates in the first half of puberty and is completed when an adult body has been developed. Until the maturation of their reproductive capabilities, the pre-pubertal physical differences between boys and girls are the external sex organs.
On average, girls begin puberty around ages 10–11; boys around ages 11–12. Girls usually complete puberty around ages 15–17, while boys usually complete puberty around ages 16–17.
The major landmark of puberty for females is menarche, the onset of menstruation, which occurs on average between ages 12–13; for males, it is the first ejaculation, which occurs on average at age 13.
In the 21st century, the average age at which children, especially girls, reach puberty is lower compared to the 19th century, when it was 15 for girls and 16 for boys. This can be due to any number of factors, including improved nutrition resulting in rapid body growth, increased weight and fat deposition, or exposure to endocrine disruptors such as xenoestrogens, which can at times be due to food consumption or other environmental factors.
Puberty which starts earlier than usual is known as precocious puberty. Puberty which starts later than usual is known as delayed puberty.
Notable among the morphologic changes in size, shape, composition, and functioning of the pubertal body, is the development of secondary sex characteristics, the "filling in" of the child's body; from girl to woman, from boy to man.
Derived from the Latin puberatum (age of maturity), the word puberty describes the physical changes to sexual maturation, not the psychosocial and cultural maturation denoted by the term adolescent development in Western culture, wherein adolescence is the period of mental transition from childhood to adulthood, which overlaps much of the body's period of puberty.
Click on any of the following blue hyperlinks for further amplification:
In response to the signals, the gonads produce hormones that stimulate libido and the growth, function, and transformation of the brain, bones, muscle, blood, skin, hair, breasts, and sex organs. Physical growth—height and weight—accelerates in the first half of puberty and is completed when an adult body has been developed. Until the maturation of their reproductive capabilities, the pre-pubertal physical differences between boys and girls are the external sex organs.
On average, girls begin puberty around ages 10–11; boys around ages 11–12. Girls usually complete puberty around ages 15–17, while boys usually complete puberty around ages 16–17.
The major landmark of puberty for females is menarche, the onset of menstruation, which occurs on average between ages 12–13; for males, it is the first ejaculation, which occurs on average at age 13.
In the 21st century, the average age at which children, especially girls, reach puberty is lower compared to the 19th century, when it was 15 for girls and 16 for boys. This can be due to any number of factors, including improved nutrition resulting in rapid body growth, increased weight and fat deposition, or exposure to endocrine disruptors such as xenoestrogens, which can at times be due to food consumption or other environmental factors.
Puberty which starts earlier than usual is known as precocious puberty. Puberty which starts later than usual is known as delayed puberty.
Notable among the morphologic changes in size, shape, composition, and functioning of the pubertal body, is the development of secondary sex characteristics, the "filling in" of the child's body; from girl to woman, from boy to man.
Derived from the Latin puberatum (age of maturity), the word puberty describes the physical changes to sexual maturation, not the psychosocial and cultural maturation denoted by the term adolescent development in Western culture, wherein adolescence is the period of mental transition from childhood to adulthood, which overlaps much of the body's period of puberty.
Click on any of the following blue hyperlinks for further amplification:
- Differences between male and female puberty
- Puberty onset
- Changes in males:
- Changes in females
- Variations
- Neurohormonal process
- Stages
- See also:
Youth Organizations in the United States
YouTube Video 4-H Youth Development Program (Massachusetts 4-H)
Pictured: See Descriptions below
Pictures Above:
TOP PHOTOS:
LEFT: FNE – Federation of North-American Explorers. We are a volunteer Catholic Christian faith-based youth movement. By “movement” we mean that the varied FNE program experience can help shape the character, social, environmental, spiritual, leadership aspects of your child into his or her adult life. Separate single gender male or female program experiences include weekly gatherings, regular field trips, all season weekend camping opportunities, international travel excursions and an annual summer camp.
RIGHT: What is Pioneer Clubs? Exciting new experiences and activities await children each week. They will learn a lot about God, the Bible, and themselves. They will have fun playing games, doing skits, trying out new skills, learning about God through Bible Explorations, and challenging themselves with Bible Memory work.
BOTTOM PHOTO:
The 4-H Youth Development program uses a learn-by-doing approach to enable youth to develop the knowledge, attitudes, and skills they need to become competent, caring, and contributing citizens of the world. The goals of the 4-H Youth Development program are to:
Provide informal educational programs for youth in grades K-13 (one year out of high school).
Encourage responsibility, community awareness, and character development in youth.
Increase knowledge and strengthen skills in adults working with youth through training, resources, and support materials, and to improve community partnerships and collaborations.
Youth organizations in the United States are of many different types. The largest is the government run 4-H program, followed by the federally chartered but private Scouting movement groups: the Boy Scouts of America and the Girl Scouts of the USA.
Another somewhat smaller but co-ed scouting derived group is Camp Fire. Other youth groups are religious youth ministries such as the evangelical Christian Awana, Seventh-day Adventist Pathfinders, and Assemblies of God Royal Rangers.
Smaller scout-like groups include the Christian Trail Life USA for boys, American Heritage Girls for girls, the non-denominational co-ed Navigators USA and Baden-Powell Service Association, and pagan but non-discriminatory SpiralScouts International.
Click on the following blue hyperlinks for more information about Youth Organizations in the United States:
TOP PHOTOS:
LEFT: FNE – Federation of North-American Explorers. We are a volunteer Catholic Christian faith-based youth movement. By “movement” we mean that the varied FNE program experience can help shape the character, social, environmental, spiritual, leadership aspects of your child into his or her adult life. Separate single gender male or female program experiences include weekly gatherings, regular field trips, all season weekend camping opportunities, international travel excursions and an annual summer camp.
RIGHT: What is Pioneer Clubs? Exciting new experiences and activities await children each week. They will learn a lot about God, the Bible, and themselves. They will have fun playing games, doing skits, trying out new skills, learning about God through Bible Explorations, and challenging themselves with Bible Memory work.
BOTTOM PHOTO:
The 4-H Youth Development program uses a learn-by-doing approach to enable youth to develop the knowledge, attitudes, and skills they need to become competent, caring, and contributing citizens of the world. The goals of the 4-H Youth Development program are to:
Provide informal educational programs for youth in grades K-13 (one year out of high school).
Encourage responsibility, community awareness, and character development in youth.
Increase knowledge and strengthen skills in adults working with youth through training, resources, and support materials, and to improve community partnerships and collaborations.
Youth organizations in the United States are of many different types. The largest is the government run 4-H program, followed by the federally chartered but private Scouting movement groups: the Boy Scouts of America and the Girl Scouts of the USA.
Another somewhat smaller but co-ed scouting derived group is Camp Fire. Other youth groups are religious youth ministries such as the evangelical Christian Awana, Seventh-day Adventist Pathfinders, and Assemblies of God Royal Rangers.
Smaller scout-like groups include the Christian Trail Life USA for boys, American Heritage Girls for girls, the non-denominational co-ed Navigators USA and Baden-Powell Service Association, and pagan but non-discriminatory SpiralScouts International.
Click on the following blue hyperlinks for more information about Youth Organizations in the United States:
- Catholic scout organizations
- Protestant youth groups
- Salvation Army
- Navigators USA
- SpiralScouts International
- Moriya
- Earth scouting
- Youth wings of political parties
- Religious
- Other
- Age groups
Sesame Street on NET (1969-1970); PBS (1970-2016); & HBO (2016-Present)
YouTube Video from Sesame Street: Elmo's Song
Sesame Street is a long-running American children's television series, produced by Sesame Workshop (formerly known as the Children's Television Workshop) and created by Joan Ganz Cooney and Lloyd Morrisett. The program is known for its educational content, and images communicated through the use of Jim Henson's Muppets, animation, short films, humor, and cultural references.
The series premiered on November 10, 1969, to positive reviews, some controversy, and high viewership; it has aired on the U.S.'s national public television provider (PBS) since its debut, with its first run moving to premium channel HBO on January 16, 2016.
The show has undergone significant changes throughout its history. The format of Sesame Street consists of a combination of commercial television production elements and techniques which have evolved to reflect the changes in American culture and the audience's viewing habits.
With the creation of Sesame Street, producers and writers of a children's television show used, for the first time, educational goals and a curriculum to shape its content. It was also the first time a show's educational effects were studied.
Shortly after creating Sesame Street, its producers developed what came to be called the "CTW model" (after the production company's previous name), a system of television show planning, production, and evaluation based on collaborations between producers, writers, educators, and researchers.
The show was initially funded by government and private foundations but has become somewhat self-supporting due to revenues from licensing arrangements, international sales, and other media. By 2006, there were independently produced versions, or "co-productions", of Sesame Street broadcast in twenty countries. In 2001 there were over 120 million viewers of various international versions of Sesame Street, and by the show's 40th anniversary in 2009, it was broadcast in more than 140 countries.
By its 40th anniversary in 2009, Sesame Street was the fifteenth-highest-rated children's television show in the United States. A 1996 survey found that 95% of all American preschoolers had watched the show by the time they were three years old. In 2008, it was estimated that 77 million Americans had watched the series as children. As of 2014, Sesame Street has won 167 Emmy Awards and 8 Grammy Awards—more than any other children's show.
Click on any of the following blue hyperlinks for more about "Sesame Street":
The series premiered on November 10, 1969, to positive reviews, some controversy, and high viewership; it has aired on the U.S.'s national public television provider (PBS) since its debut, with its first run moving to premium channel HBO on January 16, 2016.
The show has undergone significant changes throughout its history. The format of Sesame Street consists of a combination of commercial television production elements and techniques which have evolved to reflect the changes in American culture and the audience's viewing habits.
With the creation of Sesame Street, producers and writers of a children's television show used, for the first time, educational goals and a curriculum to shape its content. It was also the first time a show's educational effects were studied.
Shortly after creating Sesame Street, its producers developed what came to be called the "CTW model" (after the production company's previous name), a system of television show planning, production, and evaluation based on collaborations between producers, writers, educators, and researchers.
The show was initially funded by government and private foundations but has become somewhat self-supporting due to revenues from licensing arrangements, international sales, and other media. By 2006, there were independently produced versions, or "co-productions", of Sesame Street broadcast in twenty countries. In 2001 there were over 120 million viewers of various international versions of Sesame Street, and by the show's 40th anniversary in 2009, it was broadcast in more than 140 countries.
By its 40th anniversary in 2009, Sesame Street was the fifteenth-highest-rated children's television show in the United States. A 1996 survey found that 95% of all American preschoolers had watched the show by the time they were three years old. In 2008, it was estimated that 77 million Americans had watched the series as children. As of 2014, Sesame Street has won 167 Emmy Awards and 8 Grammy Awards—more than any other children's show.
Click on any of the following blue hyperlinks for more about "Sesame Street":
Alvin and the Chipmunks
YouTube Video of Alvin and the Chipmunks (Nickelodean)
Alvin and the Chipmunks, originally David Seville and the Chipmunks or simply The Chipmunks, is an American animated music group created by Ross Bagdasarian, Sr., for a novelty record in 1958.
The group consists of three singing animated anthropomorphic chipmunks: Alvin, the mischievous troublemaker, who quickly became the star of the group; Simon, the tall, bespectacled intellectual; and Theodore, the chubby, impressionable one.
The trio is managed by their human adoptive father, David (Dave) Seville. In reality, "David Seville" was Bagdasarian's stage name, and the Chipmunks themselves are named after the executives of their original record label. The characters became a success, and the singing Chipmunks and their manager were given life in several animated cartoon productions, using redrawn, anthropomorphic chipmunks, and eventually films.
The voices of the group were all performed by Bagdasarian, who sped up the playback to create high-pitched voices. This oft-used process was not entirely new to Bagdasarian, who had also used it for two previous novelty songs, including "Witch Doctor", but it was so unusual and well-executed it earned the record two Grammy Awards for engineering.
Bagdasarian, performing as the Chipmunks, released a long line of albums and singles, with "The Chipmunk Song" becoming a number-one single in the United States. After the death of Bagdasarian in 1972, the characters' voices were performed by his son Ross Bagdasarian, Jr. and the latter's wife Janice Karman in the subsequent incarnations of the 1980s and 1990s.
In the 2007 CGI/live-action film adaptation and its 2009 sequel, they were voiced in dialogue by Justin Long, Matthew Gray Gubler and Jesse McCartney. Bagdasarian, Jr. and Karman continue to perform the singing voices for Alvin, Theodore and the Chipettes, but Steve Vining does Simon's singing voice. The project has earned five Grammy awards, an American Music Award, a Golden Reel Award, and three Kids' Choice Awards, and has been nominated for three Emmy awards.
A third film installment, Alvin and the Chipmunks: Chipwrecked, was released in theaters on December 16, 2011. Fox 2000 Pictures and Regency Enterprises announced a fourth installment, titled Alvin and the Chipmunks: The Road Chip, released on December 18, 2015.
A CGI-animated TV series revival, titled ALVINNN!!! and the Chipmunks, premiered on Nickelodeon on August 3, 2015.
Click here for more about Alvin and the Chipmunks.
The group consists of three singing animated anthropomorphic chipmunks: Alvin, the mischievous troublemaker, who quickly became the star of the group; Simon, the tall, bespectacled intellectual; and Theodore, the chubby, impressionable one.
The trio is managed by their human adoptive father, David (Dave) Seville. In reality, "David Seville" was Bagdasarian's stage name, and the Chipmunks themselves are named after the executives of their original record label. The characters became a success, and the singing Chipmunks and their manager were given life in several animated cartoon productions, using redrawn, anthropomorphic chipmunks, and eventually films.
The voices of the group were all performed by Bagdasarian, who sped up the playback to create high-pitched voices. This oft-used process was not entirely new to Bagdasarian, who had also used it for two previous novelty songs, including "Witch Doctor", but it was so unusual and well-executed it earned the record two Grammy Awards for engineering.
Bagdasarian, performing as the Chipmunks, released a long line of albums and singles, with "The Chipmunk Song" becoming a number-one single in the United States. After the death of Bagdasarian in 1972, the characters' voices were performed by his son Ross Bagdasarian, Jr. and the latter's wife Janice Karman in the subsequent incarnations of the 1980s and 1990s.
In the 2007 CGI/live-action film adaptation and its 2009 sequel, they were voiced in dialogue by Justin Long, Matthew Gray Gubler and Jesse McCartney. Bagdasarian, Jr. and Karman continue to perform the singing voices for Alvin, Theodore and the Chipettes, but Steve Vining does Simon's singing voice. The project has earned five Grammy awards, an American Music Award, a Golden Reel Award, and three Kids' Choice Awards, and has been nominated for three Emmy awards.
A third film installment, Alvin and the Chipmunks: Chipwrecked, was released in theaters on December 16, 2011. Fox 2000 Pictures and Regency Enterprises announced a fourth installment, titled Alvin and the Chipmunks: The Road Chip, released on December 18, 2015.
A CGI-animated TV series revival, titled ALVINNN!!! and the Chipmunks, premiered on Nickelodeon on August 3, 2015.
Click here for more about Alvin and the Chipmunks.
[Your Webhost was encouraged to add this topic as a result of an episode of CBS Television's 60 Minutes program: amazing young lady!]
Child Prodigy, including a List of Child Prodigies featuring Alma Deutscher (60 Minutes November 12, 2017)
YouTube Video: 3rd mov. of Violin Concerto by Alma Deutscher*
* -- Violin concerto composed by Alma Deutscher (9). 3rd movement: Allegreo vivace e scherzando. Recording from June 2015: Israel Philharmonic Orchestra, Roni Porat, conductor, Alma Deutscher, violin. Alma plays here on a 3/4 size French violin restored by Luthier Amnon Weinstein, and on a 3/4 bow by Albert Nürnberger on loan by Daniel Schmidt. Sound: Eshel Studios The north american premiere of Alma's opera, Cinderella, will take place in San Jose on Dec 16, 2017.
Pictured: This is a portrait of composer Alma Deutscher, created by Alex Nightingale Smith and uploaded by permission of Deutscher's Managers, Askonas Holt (Courtesy of Wikimedia)
Click here for a List of Child Prodigies.
In psychology research literature, the term child prodigy is defined as a person under the age of ten who produces meaningful output in some domain to the level of an adult expert performer.
Child prodigies are rare; and, in some domains, there are no child prodigies at all. Prodigies in childhood does not always predict adult eminence.
Examples of particularly extreme prodigies could include the following:
In Music:
In Chess:
In Mathematics:
In Literature:
In Art:
In Sports:
In Philosophy:
In Science:
French composer Camille Saint-Saëns has been recognized by musical historians as one of the greatest musical child prodigies, but his mother was cautious, and didn't seek to exploit her son's skills, fearing it would cause him emotional trouble.
Memory Capacity of Prodigies:
PET scans performed on several mathematics prodigies have suggested that they think in terms of long-term working memory (LTWM). This memory, specific to a field of expertise, is capable of holding relevant information for extended periods, usually hours. For example, experienced waiters have been found to hold the orders of up to twenty customers in their heads while they serve them, but perform only as well as an average person in number-sequence recognition. The PET scans also answer questions about which specific areas of the brain associate themselves with manipulating numbers.
One subject never excelled as a child in mathematics, but he taught himself algorithms and tricks for speed of calculations, becoming capable of extremely complex mental math. His brain, compared to six other controls, was studied using the PET scan, revealing separate areas of his brain that he manipulated to solve the complex problems. Some of the areas that he and presumably prodigies use are brain sectors dealing in visual and spatial memory, as well as visual mental imagery.
Other areas of the brain showed use by the subject, including a sector of the brain generally related to childlike "finger counting", probably used in his mind to relate numbers to the visual cortex.
Working memory/cerebellum theory:
Noting that the cerebellum acts to streamline the speed and efficiency of all thought processes, Vandervert explained the abilities of prodigies in terms of the collaboration of working memory and the cognitive functions of the cerebellum.
Citing extensive imaging evidence, Vandervert first proposed this approach in two publications which appeared in 2003. In addition to imaging evidence, Vandervert's approach is supported by the substantial award winning studies of the cerebellum by Masao Ito.
Vandervert provided extensive argument that, in the prodigy, the transition from visual-spatial working memory to other forms of thought (language, art, mathematics) is accelerated by the unique emotional disposition of the prodigy and the cognitive functions of the cerebellum.
According to Vandervert, in the emotion-driven prodigy (commonly observed as a "rage to master") the cerebellum accelerates the streamlining of the efficiencies of working memory in its manipulation and decomposition/re-composition of visual-spatial content into language acquisition and into linguistic, mathematical, and artistic precocity.
Essentially, Vandervert has argued that when a child is confronted with a challenging new situation, visual-spatial working memory and speech-related and other notational system-related working memory are decomposed and re-composed (fractionated) by the cerebellum and then blended in the cerebral cortex in an attempt to deal with the new situation.
In child prodigies, Vandervert believes this blending process is accelerated due to their unique emotional sensitivities which result in high levels of repetitious focus on, in most cases, particular rule-governed knowledge domains. He has also argued that child prodigies first began to appear about 10,000 years ago when rule-governed knowledge had accumulated to a significant point, perhaps at the agricultural-religious settlements of Göbekli Tepe or Cyprus.
Development:
Further information: Nature and nurture
Some researchers believe that prodigious talent tends to arise as a result of the innate talent of the child, and the energetic and emotional investment that the child ventures. Others believe that the environment plays the dominant role, many times in obvious ways.
For example, László Polgár set out to raise his children to be chess players, and all three of his daughters went on to become world-class players (two of whom are grandmasters), emphasizing the potency a child's environment can have in determining the pursuits toward which a child's energy will be directed, and showing that an incredible amount of skill can be developed through suitable training.
But on the other hand George Frideric Handel was an example of the natural talent ... "he had discovered such a strong propensity to music, that his father who always intended him for the study of the Civil Law, had reason to be alarmed. He strictly forbade him to meddle with any musical instrument but Handel found means to get a little clavichord privately convey'd to a room at the top of the house. To this room he constantly stole when the family was asleep".
Despite his father's opposition, Handel became a skillful performer on the harpsichord and pipe organ.
See Also:
Alma Elizabeth Deutscher (born February 2005) is an English composer, pianist, violinist, and child prodigy.
At age six she composed her first piano sonata. At age seven, she completed her first major composition, the opera The Sweeper of Dreams. Aged nine, she wrote a concerto for violin and orchestra, which she premiered in a 2015 performance.
At the age of ten she completed her first full-length opera, Cinderella, which had its European premiere in Vienna on 29 December 2016 under the patronage of conductor Zubin Mehta, and in July 2017, at the age of 12, she premiered her first piano concerto, and performed it on the same evening as her full violin concerto.
Click here for more about Alma Elizabeth Deutscher.
In psychology research literature, the term child prodigy is defined as a person under the age of ten who produces meaningful output in some domain to the level of an adult expert performer.
Child prodigies are rare; and, in some domains, there are no child prodigies at all. Prodigies in childhood does not always predict adult eminence.
Examples of particularly extreme prodigies could include the following:
In Music:
- Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart,
- Franz Liszt,
- Felix Mendelssohn,
- George Enescu,
- Evgeny Kissin,
- Teresa Milanollo,
- and Dika Newlin;
In Chess:
- Bobby Fischer,
- Samuel Reshevsky,
- Judit Polgár,
- Magnus Carlsen,
- Sergey Karjakin,
- Paul Morphy
- and José Raúl Capablanca.
In Mathematics:
- Carl Friedrich Gauss,
- Évariste Galois,
- Shakuntala Devi,
- Srinivasa Ramanujan,
- Ruth Lawrence,
- János Bólyai,
- John von Neumann
- and Terence Tao
In Literature:
In Art:
In Sports:
- Wayne Gretzky
- and Pelé
In Philosophy:
In Science:
French composer Camille Saint-Saëns has been recognized by musical historians as one of the greatest musical child prodigies, but his mother was cautious, and didn't seek to exploit her son's skills, fearing it would cause him emotional trouble.
Memory Capacity of Prodigies:
PET scans performed on several mathematics prodigies have suggested that they think in terms of long-term working memory (LTWM). This memory, specific to a field of expertise, is capable of holding relevant information for extended periods, usually hours. For example, experienced waiters have been found to hold the orders of up to twenty customers in their heads while they serve them, but perform only as well as an average person in number-sequence recognition. The PET scans also answer questions about which specific areas of the brain associate themselves with manipulating numbers.
One subject never excelled as a child in mathematics, but he taught himself algorithms and tricks for speed of calculations, becoming capable of extremely complex mental math. His brain, compared to six other controls, was studied using the PET scan, revealing separate areas of his brain that he manipulated to solve the complex problems. Some of the areas that he and presumably prodigies use are brain sectors dealing in visual and spatial memory, as well as visual mental imagery.
Other areas of the brain showed use by the subject, including a sector of the brain generally related to childlike "finger counting", probably used in his mind to relate numbers to the visual cortex.
Working memory/cerebellum theory:
Noting that the cerebellum acts to streamline the speed and efficiency of all thought processes, Vandervert explained the abilities of prodigies in terms of the collaboration of working memory and the cognitive functions of the cerebellum.
Citing extensive imaging evidence, Vandervert first proposed this approach in two publications which appeared in 2003. In addition to imaging evidence, Vandervert's approach is supported by the substantial award winning studies of the cerebellum by Masao Ito.
Vandervert provided extensive argument that, in the prodigy, the transition from visual-spatial working memory to other forms of thought (language, art, mathematics) is accelerated by the unique emotional disposition of the prodigy and the cognitive functions of the cerebellum.
According to Vandervert, in the emotion-driven prodigy (commonly observed as a "rage to master") the cerebellum accelerates the streamlining of the efficiencies of working memory in its manipulation and decomposition/re-composition of visual-spatial content into language acquisition and into linguistic, mathematical, and artistic precocity.
Essentially, Vandervert has argued that when a child is confronted with a challenging new situation, visual-spatial working memory and speech-related and other notational system-related working memory are decomposed and re-composed (fractionated) by the cerebellum and then blended in the cerebral cortex in an attempt to deal with the new situation.
In child prodigies, Vandervert believes this blending process is accelerated due to their unique emotional sensitivities which result in high levels of repetitious focus on, in most cases, particular rule-governed knowledge domains. He has also argued that child prodigies first began to appear about 10,000 years ago when rule-governed knowledge had accumulated to a significant point, perhaps at the agricultural-religious settlements of Göbekli Tepe or Cyprus.
Development:
Further information: Nature and nurture
Some researchers believe that prodigious talent tends to arise as a result of the innate talent of the child, and the energetic and emotional investment that the child ventures. Others believe that the environment plays the dominant role, many times in obvious ways.
For example, László Polgár set out to raise his children to be chess players, and all three of his daughters went on to become world-class players (two of whom are grandmasters), emphasizing the potency a child's environment can have in determining the pursuits toward which a child's energy will be directed, and showing that an incredible amount of skill can be developed through suitable training.
But on the other hand George Frideric Handel was an example of the natural talent ... "he had discovered such a strong propensity to music, that his father who always intended him for the study of the Civil Law, had reason to be alarmed. He strictly forbade him to meddle with any musical instrument but Handel found means to get a little clavichord privately convey'd to a room at the top of the house. To this room he constantly stole when the family was asleep".
Despite his father's opposition, Handel became a skillful performer on the harpsichord and pipe organ.
See Also:
- Chess prodigy
- List of music prodigies
- Genius
- Gifted education
- Intellectual giftedness
- Late bloomer
- Malleable intelligence
- Polymath
- Savant syndrome
Alma Elizabeth Deutscher (born February 2005) is an English composer, pianist, violinist, and child prodigy.
At age six she composed her first piano sonata. At age seven, she completed her first major composition, the opera The Sweeper of Dreams. Aged nine, she wrote a concerto for violin and orchestra, which she premiered in a 2015 performance.
At the age of ten she completed her first full-length opera, Cinderella, which had its European premiere in Vienna on 29 December 2016 under the patronage of conductor Zubin Mehta, and in July 2017, at the age of 12, she premiered her first piano concerto, and performed it on the same evening as her full violin concerto.
Click here for more about Alma Elizabeth Deutscher.
Childhood Memory Development
YouTube Video: Rocksmith - Baby plays Guitar | OFFICIAL | HD
Pictured: Child Playing the Guitar (See also YouTube above)
The development of memory in children becomes evident within the first 3 years of a child's life as they show considerable advances in declarative memory. This enhancement continues into adolescence with major developments in short term memory, working memory, long term memory and autobiographical memory.
Recent research on the development of memory has indicated that declarative, or explicit memory, may exist in infants who are even younger than two years old. For example, newborns who are less than 3 days old demonstrate a preference for their mother’s own voice.
Cognitive Neuroscience of Memory Development:
Declarative memory develops very rapidly throughout the first 2 years of life; infants of this age show evidence of cognitive development in many ways (e.g., increased attention, language acquisition, increasing knowledge).
There is a difference in the brain development of explicit and implicit memory in infants. Implicit memory is controlled by an early-developing memory system in the brain that is present very early on, and can be explained by the early maturation of striatum, cerebellum, and brain stem, which are all involved in implicit learning and memory.
Development of explicit memory depends on a later developing memory system in the brain that reaches maturity between 8 and 10 months of age. Explicit memory depends heavily on structures in the medial temporal lobe, including the hippocampus and the parahippocampal cortex. Much of the brain system is formed before birth, however the dentate gyrus within the hippocampal formation has about 70% of the number of cells in adults.
Rapid myelination of axons within the central nervous system occurs during first year of life which can dramatically increase the efficiency and speed of transmission in neurons. This can explain the higher processing speed of older infants as compared to younger ones.
Working Memory:
According to Baddeley's model of working memory, working memory is composed of three parts. First is the central executive which is responsible for a range of regulatory functions including attention, the control of action, and problem solving.
Second, the phonological loop, which is specialized for the manipulation and retention of material in particular informational domains.
Finally, the visuospatial sketchpad stores material in terms of its visual or spatial features. The strength of the relationships between the three components of working memory vary; the central executive is strongly linked with both the phonological loop as well as the visuospatial sketchpad which are both independent of each other. Some evidence indicates linear increases in performance of working memory from age 3-4 years through to adolescence
Central Executive:
In children from 2-4, the memory storage capacity limitation constrains complex comprehension processes. As the child grows older however, less processing is necessary which opens more storage space for memory.
Phonological Loop:
Evidence indicates linear increases in performance from age 4 years through to adolescence. Prior to about 7 years of age, serial recall performance is mediated by the phonological store which is one component of the phonological loop. Preschool aged children do not use a subvocal rehearsal strategy to maintain decaying phonological representations in the store but instead they identify visual features of pictures in order to remember them.
This is evident first by watching children for overt sign of rehearsal (for example lip movement) and second if the child is given nameable pictures, there are no differences in retrieval found for long versus short words. At the age of seven, children begin to use a subvocal rehearsal process to maximize retention in the phonological store. As development continues, nonauditory memory material is recoded into a phonological code suitable for the phonological loop when possible.
Visuospatial Sketchpad:
Younger children (under the age of 5) may be dependent than older children or adults on using the visuospatial sketchpad to support immediate memory for visual material. Older children adopt a strategy of verbally recoding pictures where possible and also use the phonological loop to mediate performance of the “visual” memory task. Between the ages of 5 and 11, visual memory span increases substantially and it is at this point when adult levels of performance are reached.
Long Term Memory:
Explicit memory becomes much better over the developmental years. However, there are small effects of age on implicit memory, which could be because implicit memory involves more basic processes than declarative memory which would make it less affected by a child's developing cognitive skills and abilities.
Infants:
Infants who are 5 months or older are able to use emotions to influence their memories. However, at this age, infants will be more likely to remember things that were characterized by positive emotions.
The way that researchers study the memory capabilities of infants in this age range is through measuring eye movements between test images presented. After doing this initial round of testing, the researchers would conduct follow-up tests both 5 minutes later and one day later.
The follow-up tests shown to the infants included two geometric shapes: one from the original test, and a new shape. The researchers were able to record how long the infants looked at the images in the follow-up tests and measured how long the infants stared at each shape.
The infants were more likely to gaze at the geometric shapes from the original tests if they had been paired with positive voices than if they had been paired with neutral or negative voices. This study indicated that infants at this age would be able to better remember shapes and patterns of things if they were associated with positive emotions because positivity would increase the infants' interest and attention.
Pre-school Children:
Infants at as early as 7-months-old can conceptually differentiate between categories such as animals and vehicles. Although infants’ concepts may be crude by adult standards, they still allow infants to make meaningful semantic distinctions. An example is that infants can differentiate between items belonging to a kitchen and those items belonging to a bathroom.
At the very least, these categories lay a foundation for early knowledge development, organizing information in storage and influence future encoding. Infants from 16 months old are able to draw on their semantic knowledge in generalization and inference. This knowledge can also be used by older toddlers, 24-month-olds, to facilitate acquisition and retention of new information. Their knowledge of causal ordering of events can be used to help to recall the sequence of events.
Knowledge itself will not alter retention performance, rather how well that knowledge is structured will alter performance. Better retention was shown with information that had greater cohesion and more elaborative elements.
Familiarity and repetition of an experience can also influence the organization of information in storage for preschoolers and older children. Children who experienced an event twice recalled the event better 3 months later than did children who only experienced it once and showed equally good recall at 3 months compared to recall at 2 weeks after experiences.
School Age Children:
Age differences in memory are attributed to age-correlated growth in the foundation of knowledge. What children know affects what they encode, how that information is organized in storage, and the manner in which it’s retrieved.
The greater the background knowledge about the to-be-encoded information, the better that the information is remembered. Because older children have more knowledge than younger children, older children perform better than younger children in most memory tasks.
When familiarity and meaningfulness of material were equated across age, developmental differences in memory performance was no longer a factor.
Children’s use of memory strategies and the development of metamemory skills are also instrumental in age-related changes in memory, particularly later in childhood years. Knowledge influences memory by affecting retrieval, by facilitating spread of activation among related items in memory and by facilitating the use of strategies. Knowledge also provides better elaboration of information which can strengthen its storage in memory.
Episodic Memory:
By school age, the typical child shows skill in recalling details of past experiences and in organizing those details into a narrative form with cohesion. Memories formed at this age and beyond are more likely to stand the test of time over the years and be recalled in adulthood, compared to earlier memories.
Young children can sometimes retain information from specific episodes over very long periods of time, but the particular information a child of a particular age is likely to retain over different periods of time is unpredictable. This depends on the nature of the memory event and individual differences in the child such as gender, parental style of communication, and language ability.
Autobiographical Memory:
The amount of information that is able to be recalled depends on the child’s age at the time of the event. Children at the age of 1-2 can recall personal events, though only in fragments when questioned several months later. Two-year-old children form autobiographical memories and remember them over periods of at least several months.
Difficulty in assessing memory in young children can be attributed to their level of language skills; this is because memory tests usually occur in the form of a verbal report. It is unclear whether performance on memory assessments is due to poor memory for the event or to the inability to express what they remember in words.
However, memory tests assessing performance with a nonverbal photograph recognition test and behavioral re-enactment showed that children had signs of recall from 27 months, as opposed to 33 months, where children showed only reasonable verbal recall.
Childhood Amnesia:
Infantile amnesia is the tendency to have few autobiographical memories from below the age of 2-4.This can be attributed to lack of memory rehearsal; young children do not engage in rehearsal of remembered information. There are two theoretical explanations for why this may occur; although they take different approaches, they are not mutually exclusive of each other. The development of a cognitive self is also thought by some to have an effect on encoding and storing early memories.
Cognitive Self:
Autobiographical memories can only begin to form after infants have developed a sense of self to whom events having personal significance can occur. Evidence of a sense of self develops towards the end of the second year of life, in between 21 and 24 months of age. The development of a cognitive self provides a new framework from which memories can be organized. With this cognitive advancement, we see the emergence of autobiographical memory and the end of infantile amnesia.
Social Cultural Influences:
Language and culture play central roles in the early development of autobiographical memory. The manner in which parents discuss the past with their children and how elaborative they are in reminiscing affects how the child encodes the memory.
Children whose parents talk in detail about the past are being provided with good opportunities to rehearse their memories. The parents’ use of language at the time in which the event occurred can also play a factor in how the child remembers the episode. Cultural differences in parenting styles and parent-child relationships can contribute to autobiographical memory at an early age.
Memory Strategies:
Memory strategies are ways in which individuals can organize the information that they are processing in order to enhance recall in the future. Memory strategies that are helpful may include but are not limited to verbal rehearsal or mnemonics. The use of memory strategies varies in both the types of strategies used as well as the effectiveness of the strategies used across different age groups.
Metamemory:
As children grow older, they show increasing evidence of metamemory which is the knowledge about their memory and how it works.There is strong evidence that suggests that greater awareness and knowledge about ones memory leads to increased use of memory strategies and greater levels of recall.
In children under 7, the relationship between metamemory, strategy use, and recall is generally very weak or absent. This can be seen when comparing older children (over the age of 7) and preschool children on sorting tasks where children are asked to sort objects into groups that go together (for example animals)and attempt to recall them.
Preschool Children:
Preschool children use simple tactics for remembering but do not use mental strategies and do not typically differentiate memory and perception. In order to remember objects, they tend to verbally name or visually inspect items and use memory strategies intermittently or inconsistently even if they are aware of how they can improve recall.
Memory Strategies are used more consistently by children if they are reminded and taught to use them each time they are processing something that should be remembered.
By age 7:
By the age of 7, the awareness of the benefits of memory strategies in learning generally arises. The goal is for children to recognize the advantage of using memory strategies such as categorizing rather than simply looking or naming.
At this age, children spontaneously use rehearsal to enhance short-term memory performance and retrieval strategies begin to be used spontaneously without the guidance of others.
Late Elementary School:
In late elementary school, children engage in self-directed use of organization and demonstrate the ability to impose a semantic structure on the to-be-remembered items to guide memory performance. For example, if a child is packing their bag for school they can go through each part of their day and think of each item that they need to pack.
Children at this age understand the advantages of using memory strategies and make use of strategies like categorization over looking or naming if they are instructed to think about learning strategies prior to learning.
Early Adolescence:
In early adolescence, children begin to use elaborative rehearsal meaning that items are not simply kept in mind but rather are processed more deeply. They also prefer to use memory strategies such as categorization rather than simple rehearsal, looking or naming and use these strategies without needing to think about memory strategies prior to learning.
Recent research on the development of memory has indicated that declarative, or explicit memory, may exist in infants who are even younger than two years old. For example, newborns who are less than 3 days old demonstrate a preference for their mother’s own voice.
Cognitive Neuroscience of Memory Development:
Declarative memory develops very rapidly throughout the first 2 years of life; infants of this age show evidence of cognitive development in many ways (e.g., increased attention, language acquisition, increasing knowledge).
There is a difference in the brain development of explicit and implicit memory in infants. Implicit memory is controlled by an early-developing memory system in the brain that is present very early on, and can be explained by the early maturation of striatum, cerebellum, and brain stem, which are all involved in implicit learning and memory.
Development of explicit memory depends on a later developing memory system in the brain that reaches maturity between 8 and 10 months of age. Explicit memory depends heavily on structures in the medial temporal lobe, including the hippocampus and the parahippocampal cortex. Much of the brain system is formed before birth, however the dentate gyrus within the hippocampal formation has about 70% of the number of cells in adults.
Rapid myelination of axons within the central nervous system occurs during first year of life which can dramatically increase the efficiency and speed of transmission in neurons. This can explain the higher processing speed of older infants as compared to younger ones.
Working Memory:
According to Baddeley's model of working memory, working memory is composed of three parts. First is the central executive which is responsible for a range of regulatory functions including attention, the control of action, and problem solving.
Second, the phonological loop, which is specialized for the manipulation and retention of material in particular informational domains.
Finally, the visuospatial sketchpad stores material in terms of its visual or spatial features. The strength of the relationships between the three components of working memory vary; the central executive is strongly linked with both the phonological loop as well as the visuospatial sketchpad which are both independent of each other. Some evidence indicates linear increases in performance of working memory from age 3-4 years through to adolescence
Central Executive:
In children from 2-4, the memory storage capacity limitation constrains complex comprehension processes. As the child grows older however, less processing is necessary which opens more storage space for memory.
Phonological Loop:
Evidence indicates linear increases in performance from age 4 years through to adolescence. Prior to about 7 years of age, serial recall performance is mediated by the phonological store which is one component of the phonological loop. Preschool aged children do not use a subvocal rehearsal strategy to maintain decaying phonological representations in the store but instead they identify visual features of pictures in order to remember them.
This is evident first by watching children for overt sign of rehearsal (for example lip movement) and second if the child is given nameable pictures, there are no differences in retrieval found for long versus short words. At the age of seven, children begin to use a subvocal rehearsal process to maximize retention in the phonological store. As development continues, nonauditory memory material is recoded into a phonological code suitable for the phonological loop when possible.
Visuospatial Sketchpad:
Younger children (under the age of 5) may be dependent than older children or adults on using the visuospatial sketchpad to support immediate memory for visual material. Older children adopt a strategy of verbally recoding pictures where possible and also use the phonological loop to mediate performance of the “visual” memory task. Between the ages of 5 and 11, visual memory span increases substantially and it is at this point when adult levels of performance are reached.
Long Term Memory:
Explicit memory becomes much better over the developmental years. However, there are small effects of age on implicit memory, which could be because implicit memory involves more basic processes than declarative memory which would make it less affected by a child's developing cognitive skills and abilities.
Infants:
Infants who are 5 months or older are able to use emotions to influence their memories. However, at this age, infants will be more likely to remember things that were characterized by positive emotions.
The way that researchers study the memory capabilities of infants in this age range is through measuring eye movements between test images presented. After doing this initial round of testing, the researchers would conduct follow-up tests both 5 minutes later and one day later.
The follow-up tests shown to the infants included two geometric shapes: one from the original test, and a new shape. The researchers were able to record how long the infants looked at the images in the follow-up tests and measured how long the infants stared at each shape.
The infants were more likely to gaze at the geometric shapes from the original tests if they had been paired with positive voices than if they had been paired with neutral or negative voices. This study indicated that infants at this age would be able to better remember shapes and patterns of things if they were associated with positive emotions because positivity would increase the infants' interest and attention.
Pre-school Children:
Infants at as early as 7-months-old can conceptually differentiate between categories such as animals and vehicles. Although infants’ concepts may be crude by adult standards, they still allow infants to make meaningful semantic distinctions. An example is that infants can differentiate between items belonging to a kitchen and those items belonging to a bathroom.
At the very least, these categories lay a foundation for early knowledge development, organizing information in storage and influence future encoding. Infants from 16 months old are able to draw on their semantic knowledge in generalization and inference. This knowledge can also be used by older toddlers, 24-month-olds, to facilitate acquisition and retention of new information. Their knowledge of causal ordering of events can be used to help to recall the sequence of events.
Knowledge itself will not alter retention performance, rather how well that knowledge is structured will alter performance. Better retention was shown with information that had greater cohesion and more elaborative elements.
Familiarity and repetition of an experience can also influence the organization of information in storage for preschoolers and older children. Children who experienced an event twice recalled the event better 3 months later than did children who only experienced it once and showed equally good recall at 3 months compared to recall at 2 weeks after experiences.
School Age Children:
Age differences in memory are attributed to age-correlated growth in the foundation of knowledge. What children know affects what they encode, how that information is organized in storage, and the manner in which it’s retrieved.
The greater the background knowledge about the to-be-encoded information, the better that the information is remembered. Because older children have more knowledge than younger children, older children perform better than younger children in most memory tasks.
When familiarity and meaningfulness of material were equated across age, developmental differences in memory performance was no longer a factor.
Children’s use of memory strategies and the development of metamemory skills are also instrumental in age-related changes in memory, particularly later in childhood years. Knowledge influences memory by affecting retrieval, by facilitating spread of activation among related items in memory and by facilitating the use of strategies. Knowledge also provides better elaboration of information which can strengthen its storage in memory.
Episodic Memory:
By school age, the typical child shows skill in recalling details of past experiences and in organizing those details into a narrative form with cohesion. Memories formed at this age and beyond are more likely to stand the test of time over the years and be recalled in adulthood, compared to earlier memories.
Young children can sometimes retain information from specific episodes over very long periods of time, but the particular information a child of a particular age is likely to retain over different periods of time is unpredictable. This depends on the nature of the memory event and individual differences in the child such as gender, parental style of communication, and language ability.
Autobiographical Memory:
The amount of information that is able to be recalled depends on the child’s age at the time of the event. Children at the age of 1-2 can recall personal events, though only in fragments when questioned several months later. Two-year-old children form autobiographical memories and remember them over periods of at least several months.
Difficulty in assessing memory in young children can be attributed to their level of language skills; this is because memory tests usually occur in the form of a verbal report. It is unclear whether performance on memory assessments is due to poor memory for the event or to the inability to express what they remember in words.
However, memory tests assessing performance with a nonverbal photograph recognition test and behavioral re-enactment showed that children had signs of recall from 27 months, as opposed to 33 months, where children showed only reasonable verbal recall.
Childhood Amnesia:
Infantile amnesia is the tendency to have few autobiographical memories from below the age of 2-4.This can be attributed to lack of memory rehearsal; young children do not engage in rehearsal of remembered information. There are two theoretical explanations for why this may occur; although they take different approaches, they are not mutually exclusive of each other. The development of a cognitive self is also thought by some to have an effect on encoding and storing early memories.
Cognitive Self:
Autobiographical memories can only begin to form after infants have developed a sense of self to whom events having personal significance can occur. Evidence of a sense of self develops towards the end of the second year of life, in between 21 and 24 months of age. The development of a cognitive self provides a new framework from which memories can be organized. With this cognitive advancement, we see the emergence of autobiographical memory and the end of infantile amnesia.
Social Cultural Influences:
Language and culture play central roles in the early development of autobiographical memory. The manner in which parents discuss the past with their children and how elaborative they are in reminiscing affects how the child encodes the memory.
Children whose parents talk in detail about the past are being provided with good opportunities to rehearse their memories. The parents’ use of language at the time in which the event occurred can also play a factor in how the child remembers the episode. Cultural differences in parenting styles and parent-child relationships can contribute to autobiographical memory at an early age.
Memory Strategies:
Memory strategies are ways in which individuals can organize the information that they are processing in order to enhance recall in the future. Memory strategies that are helpful may include but are not limited to verbal rehearsal or mnemonics. The use of memory strategies varies in both the types of strategies used as well as the effectiveness of the strategies used across different age groups.
Metamemory:
As children grow older, they show increasing evidence of metamemory which is the knowledge about their memory and how it works.There is strong evidence that suggests that greater awareness and knowledge about ones memory leads to increased use of memory strategies and greater levels of recall.
In children under 7, the relationship between metamemory, strategy use, and recall is generally very weak or absent. This can be seen when comparing older children (over the age of 7) and preschool children on sorting tasks where children are asked to sort objects into groups that go together (for example animals)and attempt to recall them.
Preschool Children:
Preschool children use simple tactics for remembering but do not use mental strategies and do not typically differentiate memory and perception. In order to remember objects, they tend to verbally name or visually inspect items and use memory strategies intermittently or inconsistently even if they are aware of how they can improve recall.
Memory Strategies are used more consistently by children if they are reminded and taught to use them each time they are processing something that should be remembered.
By age 7:
By the age of 7, the awareness of the benefits of memory strategies in learning generally arises. The goal is for children to recognize the advantage of using memory strategies such as categorizing rather than simply looking or naming.
At this age, children spontaneously use rehearsal to enhance short-term memory performance and retrieval strategies begin to be used spontaneously without the guidance of others.
Late Elementary School:
In late elementary school, children engage in self-directed use of organization and demonstrate the ability to impose a semantic structure on the to-be-remembered items to guide memory performance. For example, if a child is packing their bag for school they can go through each part of their day and think of each item that they need to pack.
Children at this age understand the advantages of using memory strategies and make use of strategies like categorization over looking or naming if they are instructed to think about learning strategies prior to learning.
Early Adolescence:
In early adolescence, children begin to use elaborative rehearsal meaning that items are not simply kept in mind but rather are processed more deeply. They also prefer to use memory strategies such as categorization rather than simple rehearsal, looking or naming and use these strategies without needing to think about memory strategies prior to learning.