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Welcome to Our Generation USA!

Below, we cover
Education
as found in the United States and Overseas (including their majors and degrees); also including Vocational and on-the-job Training , as well as certified Online Training/Education courses, the latter of which also includes online or even video games that promote learning at any age!

For preK, Elementary, and High School Click Here.
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Education, including Education in the United StatesPictured: Diagram of education in the United States
Education in the United States



















Education is the process of facilitating learning, or the acquisition of knowledge, skills, values, beliefs, and habits.

Educational methods include teaching, training, storytelling, discussion and directed research. Education frequently takes place under the guidance of educators, however learners can also educate themselves. Education can take place in formal or informal settings and any experience that has a formative effect on the way one thinks, feels, or acts may be considered educational. The methodology of teaching is called pedagogy.

Formal education is commonly divided formally into such stages as preschool or kindergarten, primary school, secondary school and then college, university, or apprenticeship.

A right to education has been recognized by some governments and the United Nations. In most regions, education is compulsory up to a certain age. There is a movement for education reform, and in particular for evidence-based education.

Click on any of the following blue hyperlinks for more about Education Worldwide: ___________________________________________________________________________

Education in the United States is provided by public, private and home schools.

State governments set overall educational standards, often mandate standardized tests for K–12 public school systems and supervise, usually through a board of regents, state colleges and universities. Funding comes from the state, local, and federal government. 

Private schools are generally free to determine their own curriculum and staffing policies, with voluntary accreditation available through independent regional accreditation authorities, although some state regulation can apply.

In 2013, about 87% of school-age children (those below higher education) attended state funded public schools, about 10% attended tuition- and foundation-funded private schools and roughly 3% were home-schooled.

By state law, education is compulsory over an age range starting between five and eight and ending somewhere between ages sixteen and eighteen, depending on the state. This requirement can be satisfied in public schools, state-certified private schools, or an approved home school program.

In most schools, compulsory education is divided into three levels: elementary school, middle or junior high school, and high school.

Children are usually divided by age groups into grades, ranging from kindergarten (5–6 year olds) and first grade for the youngest children, up to twelfth grade (17–18 years olds) as the final year of high school.

There are also a large number and wide variety of publicly and privately administered institutions of higher education throughout the country. Post-secondary education, divided into college, as the first tertiary degree, and graduate school, is described in a separate section below.
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The United States spends more per student on education than any other country. In 2014, the Pearson/Economist Intelligence Unit rated US education as 14th best in the world, just behind Russia.

In 2015, the Programme for International Student Assessment rated U.S. high school students No. 40 globally in Math and No. 24 in Science and Reading. The President of the National Center on Education and the Economy said of the results "the United States cannot long operate a world-class economy if our workers are, as the OECD statistics show, among the worst-educated in the world".

Former U.S. Education Secretary John B. King, Jr. acknowledged the results in conceding U.S. students were well behind their peers. According to a report published by the U.S. News & World Report, of the top ten colleges and universities in the world, eight are American (the other two are Oxford and Cambridge, in the United Kingdom).

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Higher Education in the United States, including a List of State Universities
YouTube Video from the United States Department of Education: "Why Teachers Matter"
Pictured: LEFT: Pepperdine University, Malibu, CA; RIGHT: Princeton University, Princeton, NJ

Click here for a List of State Universities.

Higher education in the United States is an optional final stage of formal learning following secondary education. Higher education, also referred to as post-secondary education, third stage, third level, or tertiary education occurs most commonly at one of the 4,726 Title IV degree-granting institutions, either colleges or universities in the country.These may be any of the following: 
High visibility concerns include greater use of the Internet, such as massive open online courses, competency-based education, sexual assault, cutbacks in state and local spending, rapidly rising tuition and increasing student loan debt.

According to the National Student Clearinghouse, US college enrollment has declined for five consecutive years and is projected to continue declining for the next two decades. This decline, attributed to falling birth rates, amounts to a 2.5 million loss in enrollment from the peak year of 2010-2011.

Strong research and funding have helped make America's elite colleges and universities among the world's most prestigious, making them particularly attractive to international students, professors and researchers in the pursuit of academic excellence. Other countries, however, are now offering incentives to take away researchers  as funding is threatened.

The United States higher education system has also been blighted by fly-by-night schools, diploma mills, and predatory for-profit colleges.

According to Pew Research Center and Gallup poll surveys conducted in 2017, public opinion about US colleges has been declining, especially among Republicans and the white working class. The higher education industry has been criticized for being unnecessarily expensive, providing a difficult-to-measure service which is seen as vital but in which providers are paid for inputs instead of outputs, and which is besotted with federal regulations which drive up costs, and with payments not coming from users but from third parties.

Several scholarly books critical of US higher education have also been published in the last decade. Suzanne Mettler's book, Degrees of Inequality has been particularly critical of higher education policy that reinforces growing class inequality. Craig David Wilder has also written Ebony and Ivy, a scholarly analysis of early US universities and their enslavement of African Americans.

Unlike the tertiary education system of the UK and Australia, American education is unique in the world to place strong emphasis on Liberal Arts education in its higher education curriculum.

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​History of Education
YouTube Video: History of Public Education
Pictured: Countries fall into three broad categories based on their Education Index: high, medium, and low human development. The 2007/2008 edition of the Human Development Report was published on November 27, 2007; in Brasília, Brazil.  (Courtesy of Sbw01F)

The systematic provision of learning techniques to most children, such as literacy, has been a development of the last 150 or 200 years, or even last 50 years in some countries. Schools for the young have historically been supplemented with advanced training for priests, bureaucrats and specialists.

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National Education Association
YouTube Video: Congressman Catches Betsy DeVos Lying About His Daughter's Public School

​The National Education Association (NEA) is the largest professional interest group in the United States.

It represents public school teachers and other support personnel, faculty and staffers at colleges and universities, retired educators, and college students preparing to become teachers. The NEA has just under 3 million members and is headquartered in Washington, D.C. The NEA had a budget of more than $341 million for the 2012–2013 fiscal year. Lily Eskelsen García is the NEA's current president.

The stated mission of the NEA is "to advocate for education professionals and to unite our members and the nation to fulfill the promise of public education to prepare every student to succeed in a diverse and interdependent world."

The NEA, originally on the conservative side of U.S. politics, by the 1970s emerged as a factor in modern liberalism. While the NEA has a stated position of "non-partisan", it typically supports the Democratic Party. Conservatives, libertarians, and parents' rights groups have criticized the NEA's liberal positions.

State affiliates of the NEA regularly lobby state legislators for funding, seek to influence education policy, and file legal actions.

At the national level, the NEA lobbies the United States Congress and federal agencies and is active in the nominating process for Democratic candidates. From 1989 through the 2014 election cycle, the NEA spent over $92 million on political campaign contributions, 97% of which went to Democrats.

Click on any of the following blue hyperlinks for more about the National Education Association (NEA):







Rankings of Universities in the United States
YouTube Video: Environmental Sustainability at Harvard: We are a living lab
Pictured below: ​Clockwise from upper left based on College Rankings by Forbes 2017 List: Harvard University, Stanford University, Yale University, and Princeton University

College and university rankings in the United States are rankings of US colleges and universities ordered by various combinations of various contributing factors which vary greatly depending on the organization performing the ranking.

Rankings have most often been conducted by magazines, newspapers, websites, or academics. In addition to ranking entire institutions, organizations perform rankings of specific programs, departments, and schools.

Various rankings consider combinations of measures of wealth, research excellence and/or influence, selectivity, student options, eventual success, demographics, and other criteria.

There is much debate about rankings' interpretation, accuracy, usefulness, and appropriateness. The expanding diversity in rating methodologies and accompanying criticisms of each indicate the lack of consensus in the field.

For more about College and University Rankings in the United States, click on the following blue hyperlinks:​







Colleges and Universities including a List of Both
YouTube Video: Visit University of Oxford*, England
* -- University of Oxford
Pictured below: the Campus of (L) University of Missouri, Columbia; (R) California State Polytechnic University, San Luis Obispo, CA

Click here for a List of Universities and Colleges (Worldwide)

A college is an educational institution or a constituent part of one. A college may be a degree-awarding tertiary educational institution, a part of a collegiate or federal university, or an institution offering vocational education.

In the United States, "college" may refer to a constituent part of a university or to a degree-awarding tertiary educational institution, but generally "college" and "university" are used interchangeably, whereas in the United Kingdom, Oceania, South Asia and Southern Africa, "college" may refer to a secondary or high school, a college of further education, a training institution that awards trade qualifications, a higher education provider that does not have university status (often without its own degree-awarding powers), or a constituent part of a university (See this comparison of British and American English educational terminology for further information).

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A university is an institution of higher (or tertiary) education and research which awards academic degrees in various academic disciplines. Universities typically provide undergraduate education and postgraduate education.

The word "university" is derived from the Latin universitas magistrorum et scholarium, which roughly means "community of teachers and scholars." While antecedents had existed in Asia and Africa, the modern university system has roots in the European medieval university, which was created in Italy and evolved from Christian Cathedral schools for the clergy during the High Middle Ages.

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Educational Attainment in the United States
YouTube Video: President Barack Obama’s full speech at Rutgers commencement (5/5/16)

The educational attainment of the U.S. population is similar to that of many other industrialized countries with the vast majority of the population having completed secondary education and a rising number of college graduates that outnumber high school dropouts.

As a whole, the population of the United States is spending more years in formal educational programs. As with income, levels differ by race, age, household configuration and geography.

Overall, the households and demographics featuring the highest educational attainment in the United States are also among those with the highest household income and wealth. Thus, while the population as a whole is proceeding further in formal educational programs, income and educational attainment remain highly correlated.

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History of Higher Education in the United States
YouTube Video History of Women in Education

The history of higher education in the United States begins with Harvard College and continues to the present time.

Click on any of the following blue hyperlinks for more about the History of Higher Education in the United States:







College Admissions in the United States
YouTube Video: The College Admissions Process*
* - by the University of Notre Dame Alumni Association
College admissions in the United States refers to the process of applying for entrance to institutions of higher education for undergraduate study at one of the nation's colleges or universities. 

For people intended to go immediately into college after high school, the college search usually begins in the eleventh grade of high school with most activity taking place during the twelfth grade, although students at top high schools often begin the process during their tenth grade or earlier. In addition, there are considerable numbers of students who transfer from one college to another, as well as adults older than high school age who apply to college.

Overview:

Millions of high school students apply to college each year. While the number of graduates from high school peaked temporarily at 3.3 million in 2008, then to 3.4 million in 2014, numbers have been forecast to decline through 2015 and then rebound thereafter. 

Still, the number of students enrolled in college is expected to increase through 2020 when there will be approximately 23 million students in college. About a quarter of twelfth graders apply to seven or more schools, paying an average of $40 per application. Fewer than half of all students entering college graduate in four years and slightly over half graduate from college during their lifetimes.

The application process takes considerable time and planning since it involves multiple steps, with choices to be made and deadlines to be met. Students file separate applications to each school, although the Common Application expedites the process in many instances.

​Most undergraduate institutions admit students to the entire college and not to a particular department or major, unlike many European universities and American graduate schools, although some undergraduate programs such as architecture or engineering may require a separate application at some universities.

As a general rule, applying to two-year county and community colleges is much easier than to a four-year school, often requiring only a high school transcript or minimum test score.

New developments in college admissions include increased numbers of applications, increased interest by students in foreign countries in applying to American universities, more students applying by an early method, applications submitted by Internet-based methods including the Common Application, increased use of consultants, guidebooks, and rankings, and increased use by colleges of wait lists. 

One estimate was that 80 percent of applications were submitted online in 2009. In the spring of 2018, there is a probe by the justice department into whether colleges practicing Early Admissions violated anti-trust laws by sharing information about applicants.

Participants:

Students:

Applying to colleges can be stressful. The outcome of the admission process may affect a student's future career trajectory considerably. Entrance into top colleges is increasingly competitive, and many students feel pressure during their high school years.

"Private and affluent public primary education, test-prep courses, 'enrichment' programmes, volunteer service projects, international travel, music lessons, sports activities – all the high-cost building blocks of the perfect college application – put crushing pressure on the upper middle class and their offspring." — Yale professor William Deresiewicz, quoted in the BBC about his article in The New Republic, 2014

Parents:

The college applications process can be stressful for parents of teenagers, according to journalist Andrew Ferguson, since it exposes "our vanities, our social ambitions and class insecurities, and most profoundly our love and hopes for our children".

High School Counselors:

Some high schools have one or more teachers experienced in offering counseling to college-bound eleventh and twelfth graders. They usually work in conjunction with the guidance department who assist students in planning their high school academic path. Counselors handle many students and schools and generally do not have a role of overseeing or managing a student's college applications.

Advisors recommend that students get to know their school counselor. Counselors do not complete interviews, write essays, or arrange college visits. Parents often meet with the school counselor during the eleventh grade. Most counselors have responsibility for helping many students and, as a result, it is difficult for them to provide individual help to a particular student; one estimate was that the average ratio for all high schools of students to counselors was 460 to 1.

Only about a quarter of public high schools have a counselor devoted to college counseling issues full-time, while almost three quarters of private schools have a dedicated college counselor. A report suggested that private school counselors have substantially more contact with university admissions staff than public school counselors.

Consultants:

​Fee-based consultants, some available entirely online, can be hired to help a student gain admission to the so-called right schools, although there are some free programs to help underprivileged youth learn how to fill out applications, write essays, get ready for tests, and work on interviews. 

Consultants can help a student select schools to apply to, counsel them on test taking strategies, review scores, help with essay preparation (but not writing), review applications, conduct mock interviews, provide logistical planning, and collaborate with others such as athletic coaches. 

Consultants try to keep a low profile; however, one admissions dean explained that she can "sniff out when there has been some adult involved in the process". Assistance by consultants or other adults can go to extremes, particularly with hard-to-check variables such as the college essays; according to one view, plagiarism on admissions essays has been a "serious problem", particularly on applications to private universities and colleges.

There is the possibility that hiring a professional admissions consultant can make an application appear artificial; for example, admissions personnel may suspect adult coaching when one part of an application is polished, while other parts aren't, such as varying quality regarding writing samples.

Another risk in hiring a consultant, which can happen if parents become too involved in the process, is what Mamlet and VanDeVelde term overpackaging: the applicant appears so smooth and perfect that admissions officers suspect the person is not real but a marketing creation.

Generally, when hiring a college admissions counselor, parents and students try to understand the counselor's philosophy, learn what services are provided, and whether any help will be offered regarding advice about financial aid or scholarships. Mamlet and VanDeVelde suggest that it is improper for an admissions counselor to tamper with a student's "authentic self". 

According to their view, ideal counselors have experience with college admissions, meet regularly with college admissions officers, visit campuses regularly, and belong to professional affiliations.

College Admissions Staff:

​A typical admission staff at a college includes a dean or vice president for admission or enrollment management, middle-level managers or assistant directors, admission officers, and administrative support staff.

The chief enrollment management officer is sometimes the highest-paid position in the department, earning $121,000 on average in 2010, while admissions officers average only $35,000, according to one estimate.

Admissions officers tend to be in the 30-to-40 age demographic. They are chosen for their experience in admissions, aptitude for statistics and data analysis, experience in administration and marketing and public relations. They serve dual roles as counselors and recruiters, and do not see themselves as marketers or salespeople, according to one view.

They are evaluated on how well they "represent their college, manage their office, recruit staff members, and work with other administrators". Michele Hernandez suggested there were basically two types of officers: a first group of personable, sharp, people-oriented go-getter types who were often recent college grads; a second group was somewhat out-of-touch "lifers" who often did not graduate from a highly selective college. 

Officers are generally paid an annual salary, although there have been reports of some recruiters paid on the basis of how many students they bring to a college, such as recruiters working abroad to recruit foreign students to U.S. universities.

Many colleges and universities work hard to market themselves, trying to attract the best students and maintain a reputation for academic quality. Colleges spent an average of $585 to recruit each applicant during the 2010 year. There are efforts to make increased use of social media sites such as Facebook to promote their colleges. Marketing brochures and other promotional mailings often arrive daily in the hope of persuading high school students to apply to a college.

​According to Joanne Levy-Prewitt, colleges send "view books" not because they intend to admit them, but "because they want multitudes of students to apply" to improve the college's selectivity ranking and to make sure that they have as many well-qualified applicants as possible from whom to choose the strongest class. Colleges get access to names and addresses after students give permission to them after taking the PSAT or SAT exams.

Information Sources:

​US News compiles a directory of colleges and universities and has made a ranking of them, although the rankings are controversial, some colleges refuse to cooperate, and high school guidance counselors sometimes have major problems with the rankings. 

Other sources rank colleges according to various measures, sell guidebooks, and use their rankings as an entry into college admissions consulting services. College Board launched a website called BigFuture in 2012 with tools to help the admissions process.

There are services to help expedite the college admissions process, including a web-based service that sells copies of applications that gained the applicant admission to Ivy League colleges.

Test preparation firms:

Companies such as the College Board have offered services to help students prepare for their tests and provide other services, usually web-based, to help students compare schools. Some firms work with schools to provide test preparation advisors who teach students how to take the SAT and ACT entrance exams.

Click on any of the following blue hyperlinks for more about College Admissions in the United States:
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​Tests used for Admissions into College include: YouTube Video: ACT vs SAT | Which College Admissions Exam Should You Take?
Pictured below: In Race for Test-Takers, ACT Outscores SAT—for Now (Education Week)
The SAT is a standardized test widely used for college admissions in the United States (see above topic).

​Introduced in 1926, its name and scoring have changed several times; originally called the Scholastic Aptitude Test, it was later called the Scholastic Assessment Test, then the SAT I: Reasoning Test, then the SAT Reasoning Test, and now, simply the SAT.

The SAT is owned, developed, and published by the College Board, a private, non-profit organization in the United States. It is administered on behalf of the College Board by the Educational Testing Service, which until recently developed the SAT as well. The test is intended to assess students' readiness for college.

The SAT was originally designed not to be aligned with high school curricula, but several adjustments were made for the version of the SAT introduced in 2016, and College Board president, David Coleman, has said that he also wanted to make the test reflect more closely what students learned in high school.

On March 5, 2014, the College Board announced that a redesigned version of the SAT would be administered for the first time in 2016. The current SAT, introduced in 2016, takes three hours to finish, plus 50 minutes for the SAT with essay, and as of 2017 costs US$45 (US$57 with the optional essay), excluding late fees, with additional processing fees if the SAT is taken outside the United States.

Scores on the SAT range from 400 to 1600, combining test results from two 800-point sections: mathematics, and critical reading and writing. Taking the SAT, or its competitor, the ACT (see below) , is required for freshman entry to many, but not all, colleges and universities in the United States.

Starting with the 2015–16 school year, the College Board also announced it would team up with Khan Academy, a free, online education site to provide SAT prep free of charge.

Click on any of the following blue hyperlinks for more about SAT: ___________________________________________________________________________

​The ACT (originally an abbreviation of American College Testing) is a standardized test used for college admissions in the United States (see above). It was first introduced in November 1959 by University of Iowa professor Everett Franklin Lindquist as a competitor to the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) (See above)

ACT It is currently administered by ACT, a nonprofit organization of the same name.

The ACT originally consisted of four tests: English, Mathematics, Social Studies, and Natural Sciences. In 1989 however, the Social Studies test was changed into a Reading section (which included a social sciences subsection) and the Natural Sciences test was renamed the Science Reasoning test, with more emphasis on problem-solving skills as opposed to memorizing scientific facts. 

In February 2005, an optional Writing test was added to the ACT, mirroring changes to the SAT that took place in March of the same year. In 2013, ACT announced that students would be able to take the ACT by computer starting in the spring of 2015; however, by the fall of 2017, computer-based ACT tests were available only for school-day testing at limited school districts in the US, with greater availability not expected until at least the fall of 2018.

The ACT has seen a gradual increase in the number of test takers since its inception, and in 2011 the ACT surpassed the SAT for the first time in total test takers; that year, 1,666,017 students took the ACT and 1,664,479 students took the SAT.

All four-year colleges and universities in the U.S. accept the ACT, but different institutions place different emphases on standardized tests such as the ACT, compared to other factors including class rank, GPA, and extracurricular activities.

The main four sections are individually scored on a scale of 1–36, and a composite score (the rounded whole number average of the four sections) is provided.

Click on any of the following blue hyperlinks for more about ACT:






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Online Academic Degrees including a List of Online Colleges in the United States
Click on arrow: YouTube Video: Can online courses replace a campus education? by PBS News Hour
YouTube Video: Picking the best Accredited Online Colleges with the best Online College Courses
Picture courtesy of The Best Schools Organization 

Click here for an alphabetical List of Online Colleges in the United States.

An online degree is an academic degree (usually a college degree, but sometimes the term includes high school diplomas and non-degree certificate programs) that can be earned primarily or entirely through the use of an Internet-connected computer, rather than attending college in a traditional campus setting.

Improvements in technology, the increasing use of the Internet worldwide, and the need for people to have flexible school schedules while they are working have led to a proliferation of online colleges that award associate, bachelor's, master's, and doctoral degrees.

Accreditation:

The goal of educational accreditation, according to the United States Department of Education, is to ensure that programs provided by institutions of higher education meet acceptable levels of quality.

ENQA, the European Association for Quality Assurance in Higher Education, describes the role of external quality assurance in education as one that "combines both accountability for the reassurance of the public and an objective and developmental role for enhancing quality in institutions". 

In the area of online education, it is important to avoid unaccredited diploma mills that offer fake degrees, as these are unfortunately common. Students seeking valid online degrees should obtain proof of accreditation from an appropriate national or regional accrediting body.

In the United States, online colleges that are fully accredited have earned a widely recognized form of university accreditation from one of six regional accreditation boards. Each of six geographic regions of the United States has one of these boards, a non-governmental agency that oversees and accredits degree-granting institutions headquartered in their areas.

The U.S. Department of Education and the Council for Higher Education Accreditation (CHEA) also recognize the Distance Education Accrediting Commission (DEAC) as the accrediting organization for distance learning institutions and education programs that offer online degrees.

Quality of Online Degrees:

Online education enables individuals living with physical disabilities, full-time employees, soldiers, those living abroad, and stay-at-home parents, among others to have access to accredited higher education.

The perception of the quality of online degrees compared to on-campus degrees varies, but has been increasing in recent years. While most major online colleges are regionally accredited, the public estimation of their quality is in dispute. A national survey of hiring representatives showed that a preference toward on-campus degrees exists. In some instances, hiring executives were unwilling to consider applicants with an online degree. 

Some experts argue that degrees in certain fields are more accepted online than in others, while some programs are less suited for online-only schools. A major issue for accredited and reputable online programs is the proliferation of proprietary online-only programs that have come under fire in recent years.

A survey by the Distance Education Accrediting Commission (DEAC) found that 100% of employers who responded felt that distance education program graduates performed better on the job as a result of their degree (as compared to their previous performance). Additionally, employers felt that an employee receiving a distance education degree compared favorably, in terms of knowledge learned, to someone with a resident degree. 

On the other hand, The Chronicle of Higher Education reported in January 2007 on a Vault Inc. survey that found 55 percent of employers preferred traditional degrees over online ones. Forty-one percent, however, said they would give "equal consideration to both types of degrees".

The Sloan Consortium, an organization funded by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation to maintain and improve the quality of distance education, publishes regular reports on the state of United States distance education. In its 2006 report "Making the Grade: Online Education in the United States, 2006," it stated that "in 2003, 57 percent of academic leaders rated the learning outcomes in online education as the same or superior to those in face-to-face. That number is now 62 percent, a small but noteworthy increase".

According to Steve Lohr's article in the New York Times, a major study was done in 2009 that was funded by the Education Department. The collected research was from a 12-year period and concluded that online learning on average beat face-to-face teaching by a small but statistical margin. <rev>Lohr, Steve. “Second Thoughts On Web Classes.” New York Times 13 Sept. 2010: 3 Academic Search Complete. Web. 12 Apr. 2015.</rev>

In many cases, an online degree earned through an accredited public or private university may be effectively indistinguishable from a degree earned in a campus-based program, sometimes referred to as "brick-and-mortar" programs. The instruction is often exactly the same, with the online degree containing no special designation. As such the same financial aid packages are often available to online students, which has helped make them more accessible to traditional applicants.

An example of an indistinguishable degree program is that offered by Columbia University. Student who earn a degree through the Columbia Video Network (CVN) earn exactly the same type of degree as the campus-based program. The professors, courses, homework, tests, and eventual transcripts and diploma are identical to that of on-campus students. Another example is NYU Tandon Online which offers master's degrees completely online through New York University Tandon School of Engineering.

In recent years many top universities have been actively expanding their extension and online learning programs in an effort to legitimize the online education arena. While admissions to online programs at prestigious universities hasn't seen a dramatic spike, there has been a large expansion in course offerings in recent years. Almost all Ivy League and top 20 universities now offer at least one online graduate degree program or certification.

Prevalence of Online Education:

The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) conducted a distance education study based on the 2001-2002 academic year at United States 2-year and 4-year degree-granting institutions that were eligible for U.S. federal student aid. The study reported that 56 percent of institutions surveyed offered distance education courses. The study also found that public institutions were more likely to offer distance education than private institutions were.

The Sloan Consortium, based on data collected from over 2,200 U.S. colleges and universities, reports that nearly 3.2 million students took at least one online course during 2005 (a significant increase over the 2.3 million reported in 2004). According to the same report, about two-thirds of the largest institutions have fully online programs.

In 2010, more than 6 million students were taking at least one course online. As of 2013, the number of students enrolled in online courses had risen to over 6.7 million.

According to Steve Lohr's article in the New York Times, a major study was done in 2009 that was funded by the Education Department. The collected research was from a 12-year period and concluded that online learning on average beat face-to-face teaching by a small but statistical margin.

Financial Aid:

Until 2006, United States students enrolled in online degree programs were not eligible for federal student aid unless at least half of their programs were campus-based (a law established in 1992 and known as the 50-percent rule). In February 2006, that law was repealed, making federal student aid in the form of federal loans, grants, and work-study available in the U.S. for students enrolled in an eligible online degree program at an accredited Title IV-eligible institution.

See Also:









Technological Evolution of the Classroom, including:  ​Below, YouTube Videos: ​Pictured below: Top to Bottom
TOP (L) Examples of Technology in the Classroom and (R) Educational Technology for Teachers
BOTTOM: Powerful Educational Software that Motivates Kids to Learn through Fun
Pictured below: ​Examples of how Technology is Changing the Classroom (Clockwise from Upper Left): Pre-school; Elementary School; High School; University ​
[Your Web Host:​ Recently, I observed first-hand how advanced educational technology can play a positive role for children, and based on further research, decided to add this topic.]

Educational technology is "the study and ethical practice of facilitating learning and improving performance by creating, using, and managing appropriate technological processes and resources".

Educational technology is the use of both physical hardware and educational theoretics. It encompasses several domains, including learning theory, computer-based training, online learning, and, where mobile technologies are used, m-learning. Accordingly, there are several discrete aspects to describing the intellectual and technical development of educational technology:
Definition:

Educational technology is "the study and ethical practice of facilitating learning and improving performance by creating, using and managing appropriate technological processes and resources".

The Association for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT) denoted instructional technology as "the theory and practice of design, development, utilization, management, and evaluation of processes and resources for learning". 

As such, educational technology refers to all valid and reliable applied education sciences, such as equipment, as well as processes and procedures that are derived from scientific research, and in a given context may refer to theoretical, algorithmic or heuristic processes: it does not necessarily imply physical technology.

Educational technology is the process of integrating technology into education in a positive manner that promotes a more diverse learning environment and a way for students to learn how to use technology as well as their common assignments.

Related Terms:

Early 20th century abacus used in a Danish elementary school. Given this definition, educational technology is an inclusive term for both the material tools and the theoretical foundations for supporting learning and teaching. Educational technology is not restricted to high technology. Education technology is anything that enhances classroom learning in the utilization of blended, face to face, or online learning.

However, modern electronic educational technology is an important part of society today.

Educational technology encompasses the following:
  • e-learning,
  • instructional technology, 
  • information and communication technology (ICT) in education,
  • EdTech,
  • learning technology, 
  • multimedia learning,
  • technology-enhanced learning (TEL),
  • computer-based instruction (CBI),
  • computer managed instruction,
  • computer-based training (CBT),
  • computer-assisted instruction or computer-aided instruction (CAI),
  • internet-based training (IBT), flexible learning, web-based training (WBT),
  • online education,
  • digital educational collaboration,
  • distributed learning, 
  • computer-mediated communication,
  • cyber-learning,
  • and multi-modal instruction,
  • virtual education,
  • personal learning environments, 
  • networked learning, 
  • virtual learning environments (VLE) (which are also called learning platforms), 
  • m-learning,
  • ubiquitous learning
  • and digital education.

Each of these numerous terms has had its advocates, who point up potential distinctive features. However, many terms and concepts in educational technology have been defined nebulously; for example, Fiedler's review of the literature found a complete lack agreement of the components of a personal learning environment.

Moreover, Moore saw these terminologies as emphasizing particular features such as digitization approaches, components or delivery methods rather than being fundamentally dissimilar in concept or principle. For example, m-learning emphasizes mobility, which allows for altered timing, location, accessibility and context of learning; nevertheless, its purpose and conceptual principles are those of educational technology.

In practice, as technology has advanced, the particular "narrowly defined" terminological aspect that was initially emphasized by name has blended into the general field of educational technology. 

Initially, "virtual learning" as narrowly defined in a semantic sense implied entering an environmental simulation within a virtual world, for example in treating posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). 

In practice, a "virtual education course" refers to any instructional course in which all, or at least a significant portion, is delivered by the Internet.

"Virtual" is used in that broader way to describe a course that is not taught in a classroom face-to-face but through a substitute mode that can conceptually be associated "virtually" with classroom teaching, which means that people do not have to go to the physical classroom to learn. Accordingly, virtual education refers to a form of distance learning in which course content is delivered by various methods such as course management applications, multimedia resources, and videoconferencing.

Educational content, pervasively embedded in objects, is all around the learner, who may not even be conscious of the learning process: students may not have to do anything in order to learn, they just have to be there. 

The combination of adaptive learning, using an individualized interface and materials, which accommodate to an individual, who thus receives personally differentiated instruction, with ubiquitous access to digital resources and learning opportunities in a range of places and at various times, has been termed smart learning. Smart learning is a component of the smart city concept

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Educational software is a term used for any computer software which is made for an educational purpose. It encompasses different ranges from language learning software to classroom management software to reference software, etc. The purpose of all this software is to make some part of education more effective and efficient.

​Categories of Educational Software:

Courseware:

Courseware is a term that combines the words 'course' with 'software'. It was originally used to describe additional educational material intended as kits for teachers or trainers or as tutorials for students, usually packaged for use with a computer. The term's meaning and usage has expanded and can refer to the entire course and any additional material when used in reference an online or 'computer formatted' classroom.

Many companies are using the term to describe the entire "package" consisting of one 'class' or 'course' bundled together with the various lessons, tests, and other material needed. The courseware itself can be in different formats: some are only available online, such as Web pages, while others can be downloaded as PDF files or other types of document. Many forms of educational technology are now covered by the term courseware. Most leading educational companies solicit or include courseware with their training packages.

Classroom aids:
See also: Interactive whiteboard

Some educational software is designed for use in school classrooms. Typically such software may be projected onto a large whiteboard at the front of the class and/or run simultaneously on a network of desktop computers in a classroom. The most notable are SMART Boards that use SMART Notebook to interact with the board which allows the use of pens to digitally draw on the board. This type of software is often called classroom management software.

While teachers often choose to use educational software from other categories in their IT suites (e.g. reference works, children's software), a whole category of educational software has grown up specifically intended to assist classroom teaching. Branding has been less strong in this category than in those oriented towards home users. Software titles are often very specialized and produced by various manufacturers, including many established educational book publishers.

Assessment software:

Moodle is a very popular assessment websites used by teachers to send assignments and grade students' works.With the impact of environmental damage and the need for institutions to become "paperless", more educational institutions are seeking alternative ways of assessment and testing, which has always traditionally been known to use up vasts amount of paper. 

Assessment software refers to software with a primary purpose of assessing and testing students in a virtual environment. Assessment software allows students to complete tests and examinations using a computer, usually networked. The software then scores each test transcript and outputs results for each student.

Assessment software is available in various delivery methods, the most popular being self-hosted software, online software and hand-held voting systems. Proprietary software and open-source software systems are available.

While technically falling into the Courseware category (see above), Skill evaluation lab is an example for Computer-based assessment software with PPA-2 (Plan, Prove, Assess) methodology to create and conduct computer based online examination. Moodle is an example of open-source software with an assessment component that is gaining popularity.

Other popular international assessment systems include: 
Reference software:
Main article: Reference software

Many publishers of print dictionaries and encyclopedias have been involved in the production of educational reference software since the mid-1990s. They were joined in the reference software market by both startup companies and established software publishers, most notably Microsoft.

The first commercial reference software products were reformulations of existing content into CD-ROM editions, often supplemented with new multimedia content, including compressed video and sound.

More recent products made use of internet technologies, to supplement CD-ROM products, then, more recently, to replace them entirely.

Wikipedia and its spin-offs (such as Wiktionary) marked a new departure in educational reference software. Previously, encyclopedias and dictionaries had compiled their contents on the basis of invited and closed teams of specialists. The Wiki concept has allowed for the development of collaborative reference works through open cooperation incorporating experts and non-experts.

Custom platforms:

Some manufacturers regarded normal personal computers as an inappropriate platform for learning software for younger children and produced custom child-friendly pieces of hardware instead. The hardware and software is generally combined into a single product, such as a child laptop-lookalike.

The laptop keyboard for younger children follows an alphabetic order and the qwerty order for the older ones. The most well-known example are Leapfrog products. These include imaginatively designed hand-held consoles with a variety of pluggable educational game cartridges and book-like electronic devices into which a variety of electronic books can be loaded. These products are more portable than laptop computers, but have a much more limited range of purposes, concentrating on literacy.

While mainstream operating systems are designed for general usages, and are more or less customized for education only by the application sets added to them, a variety of software manufacturers, especially Linux distributions, have sought to provide integrated platforms for specifically education.

Corporate training and tertiary education:

Earlier educational software for the important corporate and tertiary education markets was designed to run on a single desktop computer (or an equivalent user device).

In the years immediately following 2000, planners decided to switch to server-based applications with a high degree of standardization. This means that educational software runs primarily on servers which may be hundreds or thousands of miles from the actual user. The user only receives tiny pieces of a learning module or test, fed over the internet one by one. The server software decides on what learning material to distribute, collects results and displays progress to teaching staff.

Another way of expressing this change is to say that educational software morphed into an online educational service. US Governmental endorsements and approval systems ensured the rapid switch to the new way of managing and distributing learning material.
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Click on any of the following blue hyperlinks for more about Educational Software:___________________________________________________________________________

History:
Main article: Educational software

Helping people and children learn in ways that are easier, faster, surer, or less expensive can be traced back to the emergence of very early tools, such as paintings on cave walls. Various types of abacus have been used. Writing slates and blackboards have been used for at least a millennium. From their introduction, books and pamphlets have held a prominent role in education.

From the early twentieth century, duplicating machines such as the mimeograph and Gestetner stencil devices were used to produce short copy runs (typically 10–50 copies) for classroom or home use. The use of media for instructional purposes is generally traced back to the first decade of the 20th century with the introduction of educational films (1900s) and Sidney Pressey's mechanical teaching machines (1920s).

The first all multiple choice, large-scale assessment was the Army Alpha, used to assess the intelligence and more specifically the aptitudes of World War I military recruits. Further large-scale use of technologies was employed in training soldiers during and after WWII using films and other mediated materials, such as overhead projectors. The concept of hypertext is traced to the description of memex by Vannevar Bush in 1945.

Slide projectors were widely used during the 1950s in educational institutional settings. Cuisenaire rods were devised in the 1920s and saw widespread use from the late 1950s.
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In the mid 1960s Stanford University psychology professors Patrick Suppes and Richard C. Atkinson experimented with using computers to teach arithmetic and spelling via Teletypes to elementary school students in the Palo Alto Unified School District in California. Stanford's Education Program for Gifted Youth is descended from those early experiments.

Online education originated from the University of Illinois in 1960. Although internet would not be created for another nine years, students were able to access class information with linked computer terminals. The first online course was offered in 1986 by the Electronic University Network for DOS and Commodore 64 computers.

Computer Assisted Learning eventually offered the first online courses with real interaction. In 2002, MIT began providing online classes free of charge. As of 2009, approximately 5.5 millions students were taking at least one class online. Currently, one out of three college students takes at least one online course while in college (Promises and pitfalls).

At DeVry University, out of all students that are earning a bachelor's degree, 80% earn two-thirds of their requirements online (Promises and Pitfalls). Also in 2014, 2.85 million students out of 5.8 million that took courses online, took all of their courses online (Promises and Pitfalls). From this information, it can be concluded that the number of students taking classes online is on the steady increase. 

In 1971, Ivan Illich published a hugely influential book called, Deschooling Society, in which he envisioned "learning webs" as a model for people to network the learning they needed. The 1970s and 1980s saw notable contributions in computer-based learning by Murray Turoff and Starr Roxanne Hiltz at the New Jersey Institute of Technology as well as developments at the University of Guelph in Canada. 

In the UK, the Council for Educational Technology supported the use of educational technology, in particular administering the government's National Development Programme in Computer Aided Learning (1973–77) and the Microelectronics Education Programme (1980–86).

By the mid-1980s, accessing course content became possible at many college libraries. In computer-based training (CBT) or computer-based learning (CBL), the learning interaction was between the student and computer drills or micro-world simulations.

Digitized communication and networking in education started in the mid-1980s. Educational institutions began to take advantage of the new medium by offering distance learning courses using computer networking for information.

Early e-learning systems, based on computer-based learning/training often replicated autocratic teaching styles whereby the role of the e-learning system was assumed to be for transferring knowledge, as opposed to systems developed later based on computer supported collaborative learning (CSCL), which encouraged the shared development of knowledge.

Videoconferencing was an important forerunner to the educational technologies known today. This work was especially popular with museum education. Even in recent years, videoconferencing has risen in popularity to reach over 20,000 students across the United States and Canada in 2008–2009.

Disadvantages of this form of educational technology are readily apparent: image and sound quality is often grainy or pixelated; videoconferencing requires setting up a type of mini-television studio within the museum for broadcast, space becomes an issue; and specialized equipment is required for both the provider and the participant.

​The Open University in Britain and the University of British Columbia (where Web CT, now incorporated into Blackboard Inc., was first developed) began a revolution of using the Internet to deliver learning, making heavy use of web-based training, online distance learning and online discussion between students. Practitioners such as Harasim (1995) put heavy emphasis on the use of learning networks.

With the advent of World Wide Web in the 1990s, teachers embarked on the method using emerging technologies to employ multi-object oriented sites, which are text-based online virtual reality systems, to create course websites along with simple sets of instructions for its students.

By 1994, the first online high school had been founded. In 1997, Graziadei described criteria for evaluating products and developing technology-based courses that include being portable, replicable, scalable, affordable, and having a high probability of long-term cost-effectiveness.

Improved Internet functionality enabled new schemes of communication with multimedia or webcams. The National Center for Education Statistics estimate the number of K-12 students enrolled in online distance learning programs increased by 65 percent from 2002 to 2005, with greater flexibility, ease of communication between teacher and student, and quick lecture and assignment feedback.

According to a 2008 study conducted by the U.S Department of Education, during the 2006–2007 academic year about 66% of postsecondary public and private schools participating in student financial aid programs offered some distance learning courses; records show 77% of enrollment in for-credit courses with an online component. In 2008, the Council of Europe passed a statement endorsing e-learning's potential to drive equality and education improvements across the EU.

Computer-mediated communication (CMC) is between learners and instructors, mediated by the computer. In contrast, CBT/CBL usually means individualized (self-study) learning, while CMC involves educator/tutor facilitation and requires itemization of flexible learning activities. In addition, modern ICT provides education with tools for sustaining learning communities and associated knowledge management tasks.

Students growing up in this digital age have extensive exposure to a variety of media. Major high-tech companies such as Google, Verizon and Microsoft have funded schools to provide them the ability to teach their students through technology, in the hope that this would lead to improved student performance.

2015 was the first year that private nonprofit organizations enrolled more online students than for-profits, although public universities still enrolled the highest number of online students. In the fall of 2015, more than 6 million students enrolled in at least one online course.

Theory:
Main articles: 
Various pedagogical perspectives or learning theories may be considered in designing and interacting with educational technology. E-learning theory examines these approaches. These theoretical perspectives are grouped into three main theoretical schools or philosophical frameworks: behaviorism, cognitivism and constructivism.

Behaviorism:

This theoretical framework was developed in the early 20th century based on animal learning experiments by Ivan Pavlov, Edward Thorndike, Edward C. Tolman, Clark L. Hull, and B.F. Skinner. Many psychologists used these results to develop theories of human learning, but modern educators generally see behaviorism as one aspect of a holistic synthesis.

Teaching in behaviorism has been linked to training, emphasizing the animal learning experiments. Since behaviorism consists of the view of teaching people how to do something with rewards and punishments, it is related to training people.

B.F. Skinner wrote extensively on improvements of teaching based on his functional analysis of verbal behavior and wrote "The Technology of Teaching", an attempt to dispel the myths underlying contemporary education as well as promote his system he called programmed instruction. Ogden Lindsley developed a learning system, named Celeration, that was based on behavior analysis but that substantially differed from Keller's and Skinner's models.

Cognitivism:

Cognitive science underwent significant change in the 1960s and 1970s. While retaining the empirical framework of behaviorism, cognitive psychology theories look beyond behavior to explain brain-based learning by considering how human memory works to promote learning.

The Atkinson-Shiffrin memory model and Baddeley's working memory model were established as theoretical frameworks. Computer Science and Information Technology have had a major influence on Cognitive Science theory. The Cognitive concepts of working memory (formerly known as short term memory) and long term memory have been facilitated by research and technology from the field of Computer Science.

Another major influence on the field of Cognitive Science is Noam Chomsky. Today researchers are concentrating on topics like cognitive load, information processing and media psychology. These theoretical perspectives influence instructional design.

Constructivism:

Educational psychologists distinguish between several types of constructivism: individual (or psychological) constructivism, such as Piaget's theory of cognitive development, and social constructivism. This form of constructivism has a primary focus on how learners construct their own meaning from new information, as they interact with reality and with other learners who bring different perspectives.

Constructivist learning environments require students to use their prior knowledge and experiences to formulate new, related, and/or adaptive concepts in learning (Termos, 2012). Under this framework the role of the teacher becomes that of a facilitator, providing guidance so that learners can construct their own knowledge.

Constructivist educators must make sure that the prior learning experiences are appropriate and related to the concepts being taught. Jonassen (1997) suggests "well-structured" learning environments are useful for novice learners and that "ill-structured" environments are only useful for more advanced learners.

Educators utilizing a constructivist perspective may emphasize an active learning environment that may incorporate learner centered problem-based learning, project-based learning, and inquiry-based learning, ideally involving real-world scenarios, in which students are actively engaged in critical thinking activities.

An illustrative discussion and example can be found in the 1980s deployment of constructivist cognitive learning in computer literacy, which involved programming as an instrument of learning.

LOGO, a programming language, embodied an attempt to integrate Piagetan ideas with computers and technology. Initially there were broad, hopeful claims, including "perhaps the most controversial claim" that it would "improve general problem-solving skills" across disciplines.

However, LOGO programming skills did not consistently yield cognitive benefits. It was "not as concrete" as advocates claimed, it privileged "one form of reasoning over all others," and it was difficult to apply the thinking activity to non-LOGO-based activities. By the late 1980s, LOGO and other similar programming languages had lost their novelty and dominance and were gradually de-emphasized amid criticisms.

Practice:
​See also: Instructional design

​The extent to which e-learning assists or replaces other learning and teaching approaches is variable, ranging on a continuum from none to fully online distance learning. A variety of descriptive terms have been employed (somewhat inconsistently) to categorize the extent to which technology is used.

For example, 'hybrid learning' or 'blended learning' may refer to classroom aids and laptops, or may refer to approaches in which traditional classroom time is reduced but not eliminated, and is replaced with some online learning. 'Distributed learning' may describe either the e-learning component of a hybrid approach, or fully online distance learning environments.

Synchronous and asynchronous:

E-learning may either be synchronous or asynchronous. Synchronous learning occurs in real-time, with all participants interacting at the same time, while asynchronous learning is self-paced and allows participants to engage in the exchange of ideas or information without the dependency of other participants′ involvement at the same time.

Synchronous learning refers to the exchange of ideas and information with one or more participants during the same period. Examples are face-to-face discussion, online real-time live teacher instruction and feedback, Skype conversations, and chat rooms or virtual classrooms where everyone is online and working collaboratively at the same time.

Since students are working collaboratively, synchronized learning helps students create an open mind because they have to listen and learn from their peers. Synchronized learning fosters online awareness and improves many students' writing skills.

Asynchronous learning may use technologies such as email, blogs, wikis, and discussion boards, as well as web-supported textbooks, hypertext documents, audio video courses, and social networking using web 2.0. At the professional educational level, training may include virtual operating rooms.

Asynchronous learning is beneficial for students who have health problems or who have child care responsibilities. They have the opportunity to complete their work in a low stress environment and within a more flexible time frame. In asynchronous online courses, students proceed at their own pace. If they need to listen to a lecture a second time, or think about a question for a while, they may do so without fearing that they will hold back the rest of the class.

Through online courses, students can earn their diplomas more quickly, or repeat failed courses without the embarrassment of being in a class with younger students. Students have access to an incredible variety of enrichment courses in online learning, and can participate in college courses, internships, sports, or work and still graduate with their class.

Linear learning:

Computer-based training (CBT) refers to self-paced learning activities delivered on a computer or handheld device such as a tablet or smartphone. CBT initially delivered content via CD-ROM, and typically presented content linearly, much like reading an online book or manual.

For this reason, CBT is often used to teach static processes, such as using software or completing mathematical equations. Computer-based training is conceptually similar to web-based training (WBT) which are delivered via Internet using a web browser.

Assessing learning in a CBT is often by assessments that can be easily scored by a computer such as multiple choice questions, drag-and-drop, radio button, simulation or other interactive means. Assessments are easily scored and recorded via online software, providing immediate end-user feedback and completion status. Users are often able to print completion records in the form of certificates.

CBTs provide learning stimulus beyond traditional learning methodology from textbook, manual, or classroom-based instruction. CBTs can be a good alternative to printed learning materials since rich media, including videos or animations, can be embedded to enhance the learning.

CBTs pose some learning challenges. Typically, the creation of effective CBTs requires enormous resources. The software for developing CBTs (such as Flash or Adobe Director) is often more complex than a subject matter expert or teacher is able to use. The lack of human interaction can limit both the type of content that can be presented and the type of assessment that can be performed, and may need supplementation with online discussion or other interactive elements.

Collaborative learning:
Main article: Computer-supported collaborative learning

Computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL) uses instructional methods designed to encourage or require students to work together on learning tasks, allowing social learning. CSCL is similar in concept to the terminology, "e-learning 2.0" and "networked collaborative learning" (NCL).

With Web 2.0 advances, sharing information between multiple people in a network has become much easier and use has increased. One of the main reasons for its usage states that it is "a breeding ground for creative and engaging educational endeavors."

Learning takes place through conversations about content and grounded interaction about problems and actions. This collaborative learning differs from instruction in which the instructor is the principal source of knowledge and skills. The neologism "e-learning 1.0" refers to direct instruction used in early computer-based learning and training systems (CBL).

In contrast to that linear delivery of content, often directly from the instructor's material, CSCL uses social software such as blogs, social media, wikis, podcasts, cloud-based document portals (such as Google Docs and Dropbox), and discussion groups and virtual worlds such as Second Life. This phenomenon has been referred to as Long Tail Learning. 

Advocates of social learning claim that one of the best ways to learn something is to teach it to others. Social networks have been used to foster online learning communities around subjects as diverse as test preparation and language education. Mobile-assisted language learning (MALL) is the use of handheld computers or cell phones to assist in language learning.

Collaborative apps allow students and teachers to interact while studying. Apps are designed after games, which provide a fun way to revise. When the experience is enjoyable the students become more engaged.

Games also usually come with a sense of progression, which can help keep students motivated and consistent while trying to improve. Examples of educational games are Dragon Box, Mind Snacks, Code Spells and many more.

Classroom 2.0 refers to online multi-user virtual environments (MUVEs) that connect schools across geographical frontiers. Known as "eTwinning", computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL) allows learners in one school to communicate with learners in another that they would not get to know otherwise, enhancing educational outcomes and cultural integration.

Further, many researchers distinguish between collaborative and cooperative approaches to group learning. For example, Roschelle and Teasley (1995) argue that "cooperation is accomplished by the division of labor among participants, as an activity where each person is responsible for a portion of the problem solving", in contrast with collaboration that involves the "mutual engagement of participants in a coordinated effort to solve the problem together."

Flipped classroom:
Main article: Flipped classroom

​This is an instructional strategy in which computer-assisted teaching is integrated with classroom instruction. Students are given basic essential instruction, such as lectures, before class instead of during class. This frees up classroom time for teachers to more actively engage with learners.

Media:

Educational media and tools can be used for:
  • task structuring support: help with how to do a task (procedures and processes),
  • access to knowledge bases (help user find information needed)
  • alternate forms of knowledge representation (multiple representations of knowledge, e.g. video, audio, text, image, data)

​Numerous types of physical technology are currently used: 
  • digital cameras,
  • video cameras,
  • interactive whiteboard tools,
  • document cameras, 
  • electronic media,
  • and LCD projectors.

Combinations of these techniques include blogs, collaborative software, ePortfolios, and virtual classrooms.

The current design of this type of applications includes the evaluation through tools of cognitive analysis that allow to identify which elements optimize the use of these platforms.

Audio and video:

Radio offers a synchronous educational vehicle, while streaming audio over the internet with webcasts and podcasts can be asynchronous. Classroom microphones, often wireless, can enable learners and educators to interact more clearly.

Video technology has included VHS tapes and DVDs, as well as on-demand and synchronous methods with digital video via server or web-based options such as streamed video from YouTube, Teacher Tube, Skype, Adobe Connect, and webcams. Telecommuting can connect with speakers and other experts. Interactive digital video games are being used at K-12 and higher education institutions.

Computers, tablets and mobile devices:

Collaborative learning is a group-based learning approach in which learners are mutually engaged in a coordinated fashion to achieve a learning goal or complete a learning task. With recent developments in smartphone technology, the processing powers and storage capabilities of modern mobiles allow for advanced development and use of apps. Many app developers and education experts have been exploring smartphone and tablet apps as a medium for collaborative learning.

Computers and tablets enable learners and educators to access websites as well as programs such as Microsoft Word, PowerPoint, PDF files, and images. Many mobile devices support m-learning.

Mobile devices such as clickers and smartphones can be used for interactive audience response feedback. Mobile learning can provide performance support for checking the time, setting reminders, retrieving worksheets, and instruction manuals.

OpenCourseWare (OCW) gives free public access to information used in undergraduate and graduate programs. Participating institutions are
  • MIT, 
  • Harvard,
  • Yale,
  • Princeton,
  • Stanford,
  • University of Pennsylvania,
  • and University of Michigan.

Google Classroom allows instructors to create, administer, and grade assignments. While Google Classroom ultimately strives to create a paperless learning environment, there are many different types of learner; a learning environment like the one that Google Classroom projects does not work for everyone.

Social networks:
Further information: Social media in education

Group web pages, blogs, wikis, and Twitter allow learners and educators to post thoughts, ideas, and comments on a website in an interactive learning environment. Social networking sites are virtual communities for people interested in a particular subject to communicate by voice, chat, instant message, video conference, or blogs.

The National School Boards Association found that 96% of students with online access have used social networking technologies, and more than 50% talk online about schoolwork. Social networking encourages collaboration and engagement and can be a motivational tool for self-efficacy among students.

Webcams:

Webcams and webcasting have enabled creation of virtual classrooms and virtual learning environment. Webcams are also being used to counter plagiarism and other forms of academic dishonesty that might occur in an e-learning environment.

Whiteboards:
Main articles: Whiteboard and Interactive whiteboard

There are three types of whiteboards. The initial whiteboards, analogous to blackboards, date from the late 1950s. The term whiteboard is also used metaphorically to refer to virtual whiteboards in which computer software applications simulate whiteboards by allowing writing or drawing.

This is a common feature of groupware for virtual meeting, collaboration, and instant messaging. Interactive whiteboards allow learners and instructors to write on the touch screen.

The screen markup can be on either a blank whiteboard or any computer screen content. Depending on permission settings, this visual learning can be interactive and participatory, including writing and manipulating images on the interactive whiteboard.

Screencasting:

Screencasting allows users to share their screens directly from their browser and make the video available online so that other viewers can stream the video directly. The presenter thus has the ability to show their ideas and flow of thoughts rather than simply explain them as simple text content.

In combination with audio and video, the educator can mimic the one-on-one experience of the classroom. Learners have an ability to pause and rewind, to review at their own pace, something a classroom cannot always offer.

Virtual classroom:
Main articles: Virtual Learning Environment and MUVE

A virtual learning environment (VLE), also known as a learning platform, simulates a virtual classroom or meetings by simultaneously mixing several communication technologies. Web conferencing software enables students and instructors to communicate with each other via webcam, microphone, and real-time chatting in a group setting.

Participants can raise hands, answer polls or take tests. Students are able to whiteboard and screencast when given rights by the instructor, who sets permission levels for text notes, microphone rights and mouse control.

A virtual classroom provides the opportunity for students to receive direct instruction from a qualified teacher in an interactive environment. Learners can have direct and immediate access to their instructor for instant feedback and direction. The virtual classroom provides a structured schedule of classes, which can be helpful for students who may find the freedom of asynchronous learning to be overwhelming.

In addition, the virtual classroom provides a social learning environment that replicates the traditional "brick and mortar" classroom. Most virtual classroom applications provide a recording feature. Each class is recorded and stored on a server, which allows for instant playback of any class over the course of the school year. This can be extremely useful for students to retrieve missed material or review concepts for an upcoming exam.

Parents and auditors have the conceptual ability to monitor any classroom to ensure that they are satisfied with the education the learner is receiving.

In higher education especially, a virtual learning environment (VLE) is sometimes combined with a management information system (MIS) to create a managed learning environment, in which all aspects of a course are handled through a consistent user interface throughout the institution. Physical universities and newer online-only colleges offer select academic degrees and certificate programs via the Internet.

Some programs require students to attend some campus classes or orientations, but many are delivered completely online. Several universities offer online student support services, such as online advising and registration, e-counseling, online textbook purchases, student governments and student newspapers.

Augmented reality (AR) provides students and teachers the opportunity to create layers of digital information, that includes both virtual world and real world elements, to interact with in real time. There are already a variety of apps which offer a lot of variations and possibilities.

​Media psychology involves the application of theories in psychology to media and is a growing specialty in learning and educational technology.

Learning management system:
Main article: Learning management system

A learning management system (LMS) is software used for delivering, tracking and managing training and education. It tracks data about attendance, time on task, and student progress. Educators can post announcements, grade assignments, check on course activity, and participate in class discussions.

Students can submit their work, read and respond to discussion questions, and take quizzes. An LMS may allow teachers, administrators, students, and permitted additional parties (such as parents if appropriate) to track various metrics. LMSs range from systems for managing training/educational records to software for distributing courses over the Internet and offering features for online collaboration.

The creation and maintenance of comprehensive learning content requires substantial initial and ongoing investments of human labor. Effective translation into other languages and cultural contexts requires even more investment by knowledgeable personnel.

Internet-based learning management systems include the following:
These types of LMS allow educators to run a learning system partially or fully online, asynchronously or synchronously.

Blackboard can be used for K-12 education, Higher Education, Business, and Government collaboration.

Moodle is a free-to-download Open Source Course Management System that provides blended learning opportunities as well as platforms for distance learning courses.

Eliademy is a free cloud-based Course Management System that provides blended learning opportunities as well as platforms for distance learning courses.

Learning content management system:

A learning content management system (LCMS) is software for author content (courses, reusable content objects). An LCMS may be solely dedicated to producing and publishing content that is hosted on an LMS, or it can host the content itself.

The Aviation Industry Computer-Based Training Committee (AICC) specification provides support for content that is hosted separately from the LMS.

A recent trend in LCMSs is to address this issue through crowdsourcing (cf.SlideWiki).

Computer-aided assessment:

Computer-aided assessment (e-assessment) ranges from automated multiple-choice tests to more sophisticated systems. With some systems, feedback can be geared towards a student's specific mistakes or the computer can navigate the student through a series of questions adapting to what the student appears to have learned or not learned. Formative assessment sifts out the incorrect answers, and these questions are then explained by the teacher.

The learner then practices with slight variations of the sifted out questions. The process is completed by summative assessment using a new set of questions that only cover the topics previously taught.

Electronic performance support system:

An electronic performance support system (EPSS) is, according to Barry Raybould, "a computer-based system that improves worker productivity by providing on-the-job access to integrated information, advice, and learning experiences".

Training management system:

A training management system or training resource management system is a software designed to optimize instructor-led training management.

Similar to an enterprise resource planning (ERP), it is a back office tool which aims at streamlining every aspect of the training process:
  • planning (training plan and budget forecasting),
  • logistics (scheduling and resource management),
  • financials (cost tracking, profitability),
  • reporting,
  • and sales for-profit training providers.

A training management system can be used to schedule instructors, venues and equipment through graphical agendas, optimize resource utilization, create a training plan and track remaining budgets, generate reports and share data between different teams.

While training management systems focus on managing instructor-led training, they can complete an LMS. In this situation, an LMS will manage e-learning delivery and assessment, while a training management system will manage ILT and back-office budget planning, logistic and reporting.

Learning objects:
Main article: Learning object

Content: Content and design architecture issues include pedagogy and learning object re-use. One approach looks at five aspects:
  • Fact – unique data (e.g. symbols for Excel formula, or the parts that make up a learning objective)
  • Concept – a category that includes multiple examples (e.g. Excel formulas, or the various types/theories of instructional design)
  • Process – a flow of events or activities (e.g. how a spreadsheet works, or the five phases in ADDIE)
  • Procedure – step-by-step task (e.g. entering a formula into a spreadsheet, or the steps that should be followed within a phase in ADDIE)
  • Strategic principle – task performed by adapting guidelines (e.g. doing a financial projection in a spreadsheet, or using a framework for designing learning environments)

Pedagogical elements  are defined as structures or units of educational material. They are the educational content that is to be delivered. These units are independent of format, meaning that although the unit may be delivered in various ways, the pedagogical structures themselves are not the textbook, web page, video conference, Podcast, lesson, assignment, multiple choice question, quiz, discussion group or a case study, all of which are possible methods of delivery.

Learning objects standards: Much effort has been put into the technical reuse of electronically based teaching materials and in particular creating or re-using learning objects.

These are self-contained units that are properly tagged with keywords, or other metadata, and often stored in an XML file format. Creating a course requires putting together a sequence of learning objects.

There are both proprietary and open, non-commercial and commercial, peer-reviewed repositories of learning objects such as the Merlot repository. Sharable Content Object Reference Model (SCORM) is a collection of standards and specifications that applies to certain web-based e-learning.

Other specifications such as Schools Framework allow for the transporting of learning objects, or for categorizing metadata (LOM).

Settings:

Preschool:
Various forms of electronic media are a feature of preschool life. Although parents report a positive experience, the impact of such use has not been systematically assessed.

The age when a given child might start using a particular technology such as a cellphone or computer might depend on matching a technological resource to the recipient's developmental capabilities, such as the age-anticipated stages labeled by Swiss psychologist, Jean Piaget. Parameters, such as age-appropriateness, coherence with sought-after values, and concurrent entertainment and educational aspects, have been suggested for choosing media.

K–12:​

E-learning is utilized by public K–12 schools in the United States as well as private schools. Some e-learning environments take place in a traditional classroom, others allow students to attend classes from home or other locations. There are several states that are utilizing virtual school platforms for e-learning across the country that continue to increase. Virtual school enables students to log into synchronous learning or asynchronous learning courses anywhere there is an internet connection.

E-learning is increasingly being utilized by students who may not want to go to traditional brick and mortar schools due to severe allergies or other medical issues, fear of school violence and school bullying and students whose parents would like to homeschool but do not feel qualified.

Online schools create a haven for students to receive a quality education while almost completely avoiding these common problems. Online charter schools also often are not limited by location, income level or class size in the way brick and mortar charter schools are.

E-learning also has been rising as a supplement to the traditional classroom. Students with special talents or interests outside of the available curricula use e-learning to advance their skills or exceed grade restrictions. Some online institutions connect students with instructors via web conference technology to form a digital classroom.

National private schools are also available online. These provide the benefits of e-learning to students in states where charter online schools are not available. They also may allow students greater flexibility and exemption from state testing.

Virtual education in K-12 schooling often refers to virtual schools, and in higher education to virtual universities. Virtual schools are "cyber charter schools" with innovative administrative models and course delivery technology.

​Higher education:
Main article: Online learning in higher education

Online college course enrollment has seen a 29% increase in enrollment with nearly one third of all college students, or an estimated 6.7 million students are currently enrolled in online classes. In 2009, 44 percent of post-secondary students in the USA were taking some or all of their courses online, which was projected to rise to 81 percent by 2014.

Although a large proportion of for-profit higher education institutions now offer online classes, only about half of private, non-profit schools do so.

Private institutions may become more involved with on-line presentations as the costs decrease. Properly trained staff must also be hired to work with students online. These staff members need to understand the content area, and also be highly trained in the use of the computer and Internet.

Online education is rapidly increasing, and online doctoral programs have even developed at leading research universities.

Although massive open online courses (MOOCs) may have limitations that preclude them from fully replacing college education, such programs have significantly expanded. MIT, Stanford and Princeton University offer classes to a global audience, but not for college credit.

University-level programs, like edX founded by Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Harvard University, offer wide range of disciplines at no charge, while others permit students to audit a course at no charge but require a small fee for accreditation. MOOCs have not had a significant impact on higher education and declined after the initial expansion, but are expected to remain in some form.

Private organizations also offer classes, such as Udacity, with free computer science classes, and Khan Academy, with over 3,900 free micro-lectures available via YouTube. Distributed open collaborative course (DOCC) sees itself as a counter-movement to MOOC, emphasizing decentralized teaching.

University of the People is a non-profit accredited online university. Coursera offers online courses. According to Fortune magazine, over a million people worldwide have enrolled in free online courses.

Corporate and professional:

Companies with spread out distribution chains use e-learning for staff training and development and to bring customers information about the latest product developments. Continuing professional development (CPD) can deliver regulatory compliance updates and staff development of valuable workplace skills. For effectiveness and competitive learning performance, scoring systems are designed to give live feedback on decision-making in complex (mobile) learning scenarios.

Public health:

There is an important need for recent, reliable, and high-quality health information to be made available to the public as well as in summarized form for public health providers. Health providers have indicated the need for automatic notification of the latest research, a single searchable portal of information, and access to grey literature.

The Maternal and Child Health (MCH) Library is funded by the U.S. Maternal and Child Health Bureau to screen the latest research and develop automatic notifications to providers through the MCH Alert.

Another application in public health is the development of mHealth (use of mobile telecommunication and multimedia into global public health). MHealth has been used to promote prenatal and newborn services, with positive outcomes.

In addition, "Health systems have implemented mHealth programs to facilitate emergency medical responses, point-of-care support, health promotion and data collection." In low and middle income countries, mHealth is most frequently used as one-way text messages or phone reminders to promote treatment adherence and gather data.

ADHD:

There has also been a growing interest in e-learning as a beneficial educational method for students with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). With the growing popularity in e-learning among K-12 and higher education, the opportunity to take online classes is becoming increasingly important for students of all ages.

However, students with ADHD and special needs face different learning demands compared to the typical developing learner. This is especially significant considering the dramatic rise in ADHD diagnoses in the last decade among both children and adults. Compared to the traditional face-to-face classroom, e-learning and virtual classrooms require a higher level of executive functions, which is the primary deficit associated with ADHD.

Although ADHD is not specifically named in the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, students with ADHD who have symptoms that interfere with their learning or ability may be eligible for assistive technology. Some examples of the resources that may help interest students and adults with ADHD consist of, computer software, brain games, timers, calendars, voice recognition devices, screen magnifiers, and talking books.

Wolf lists 12 executive function skills necessary for students to succeed in post-secondary education: plan, set goals, organize, initiate, sustain attention/effort, flexibility, monitor, use feedback, structure, manage time, manage materials, and follow through. 

These skills, along with strong independent and self-regulated learning, are especially pronounced in the online environment and as many ADHD students suffer from a deficit in one or more of these executive functions, this presents a significant challenge and accessibility barrier to the current e-learning approach.

Some have noted that current e-learning models are moving towards applying a constructivism learning theory that emphasizes a learner-centered environment and postulates that everyone has the ability to construct their own knowledge and meaning through a process of problem solving and discovery. However, some principles of constructivism may not be appropriate for ADHD learners; these principles include active learning, self-monitoring, motivation, and strong focus.

Despite the limitations, students with special needs, including ADHD, have expressed an overall enthusiasm for e-learning and have identified a number e-learning benefits, including:
  • availability of online course notes, materials and additional resources;
  • the ability to work at an independent pace and spend extra time formulating thoughtful responses in class discussions;
  • help in understanding course lecture/content;
  • ability to review lectures multiple times; and enhanced access to and communication with the course instructor.

​Disabilities:

The design of e-learning platforms in ways that enable universal access has received attention from several directions, including the World Wide Web Consortium's Web Accessibility Initiative (WAI). WAI provides universal formatting standards for websites so they can remain accessible to people with disabilities.

For example, developing or adopting e-learning material can enable accessibility for people with visual impairment. The Perkins School for the Blind offers learning resources tailored for the visually impaired, including webcasts, webinars, downloadable science activities, and an online library that has access to over 40,000 resource materials on blindness and deaf blindness.

Online education may appear to be a promising alternative for students with physical and sensory disabilities because they get to work at their own pace and in their own home.

However, not all online programs are equal when it comes to their resources for students with disabilities. Students with disabilities who wish to enroll in online education must either be able to advocate for themselves and their own rights or have a person who is willing to advocate for them.

The American with Disabilities Act states that online programs must provide appropriate accommodations for students with disabilities, but has not specifically defined what that means. "Once students with disabilities are accepted into an online program, they should prepare to be direct and open about what they need to succeed, experts say" (Haynie).

Identity options:

Educational technology, particularly in online learning environments, can allow students to use real identity, pseudonym, or anonymous identity during classroom communication. Advantages in anonymizing race, age, and gender are increased student participation and increased cross-cultural communication. Risks include increased cyber-bullying, and aggressive or hostile language.

Benefits:
​
Effective technology use deploys multiple evidence-based strategies concurrently (e.g. adaptive content, frequent testing, immediate feedback, etc.), as do effective teachers. 

Using computers or other forms of technology can give students practice on core content and skills while the teacher can work with others, conduct assessments, or perform other tasks. 

Through the use of educational technology, education is able to be individualized for each student allowing for better differentiation and allowing students to work for mastery at their own pace.

Modern educational technology can improve access to education, including full degree programs. It enables better integration for non-full-time students, particularly in continuing education, and improved interactions between students and instructors. Learning material can be used for long distance learning and are accessible to a wider audience.

Course materials are easy to access. In 2010, 70.3% of American family households had access to the internet. In 2013, according to Canadian Radio Television and Telecommunications Commission Canada, 79% of homes have access to the internet. 

Students can access and engage with numerous online resources at home. Using online resources such as Khan Academy or TED Talks can help students spend more time on specific aspects of what they may be learning in school, but at home.

Schools like MIT have made certain course materials free online. Although some aspects of a classroom setting are missed by using these resources, they are helpful tools to add additional support to the educational system. The necessity to pay for transport to the educational facility is removed.

Students appreciate the convenience of e-learning, but report greater engagement in face-to-face learning environments.

According to James Kulik, who studies the effectiveness of computers used for instruction, students usually learn more in less time when receiving computer-based instruction and they like classes more and develop more positive attitudes toward computers in computer-based classes. Students can independently solve problems.

There are no intrinsic age-based restrictions on difficulty level, i.e. students can go at their own pace. Students editing their written work on word processors improve the quality of their writing. According to some studies, the students are better at critiquing and editing written work that is exchanged over a computer network with students they know.

Studies completed in "computer intensive" settings found increases in student-centric, cooperative and higher order learning, writing skills, problem solving, and using technology. In addition, attitudes toward technology as a learning tool by parents, students and teachers are also improved.

Employers' acceptance of online education has risen over time. More than 50% of human resource managers SHRM surveyed for an August 2010 report said that if two candidates with the same level of experience were applying for a job, it would not have any kind of effect whether the candidate's obtained degree was acquired through an online or a traditional school.

Seventy-nine percent said they had employed a candidate with an online degree in the past 12 months. However 66% said candidates who get degrees online were not seen as positively as a job applicant with traditional degrees.

The use of educational apps generally has positive effect on learning. Pre- and post- tests reveal that the use of apps on mobile devices reduces the achievement gap between struggling and average students.

Some educational apps improve group work by allowing students to receive feedback on answers and promoting collaboration in solving problems, examples of these apps can be found in the third paragraph. The benefits of app-assisted learning have been exhibited in all age groups.

​Kindergarten students that use iPads show much higher rates of literacy than non-users. Medical students at University of California Irvine that utilized iPad academically have been reported to score 23% higher on national exams than previous classes that did not.

Disadvantages:
​
Many US states spend large sums of money on technology. However, as of 2013, none were looking at technology return on investment (ROI) to connect expenditures on technology with improved student outcomes.

New technologies are frequently accompanied by unrealistic hype and promise regarding their transformative power to change education for the better or in allowing better educational opportunities to reach the masses. Examples include silent film, broadcast radio, and television, none of which have maintained much of a foothold in the daily practices of mainstream, formal education.

Technology, in and of itself, does not necessarily result in fundamental improvements to educational practice. The focus needs to be on the learner's interaction with technology—not the technology itself. It needs to be recognized as "ecological" rather than "additive" or "subtractive". In this ecological change, one significant change will create total change.

According to Branford et al., "technology does not guarantee effective learning" and inappropriate use of technology can even hinder it. A University of Washington study of infant vocabulary shows that it is slipping due to educational baby DVDs.

Published in the Journal of Pediatrics, a 2007 University of Washington study on the vocabulary of babies surveyed over 1,000 parents in Washington and Minnesota. The study found that for every one hour that babies 8–16 months of age watched DVDs and Videos they knew 6-8 fewer of 90 common baby words than the babies that did not watch them.

Andrew Meltzoff, a surveyor in this study states that the result makes sense, that if the baby's 'alert time' is spent in front of DVDs and TV, instead of with people speaking, the babies are not going to get the same linguistic experience. Dr. Dimitri Chistakis, another surveyor reported that the evidence is mounting that baby DVDs are of no value and may be harmful.

Adaptive instructional materials tailor questions to each student's ability and calculate their scores, but this encourages students to work individually rather than socially or collaboratively (Kruse, 2013). Social relationships are important but high-tech environments may compromise the balance of trust, care and respect between teacher and student.

Massively open online courses (MOOCs), although quite popular in discussions of technology and education in developed countries (more so in US), are not a major concern in most developing or low-income countries. One of the stated goals of MOOCs is to provide less fortunate populations (i.e., in developing countries) an opportunity to experience courses with US-style content and structure.

However, research shows only 3% of the registrants are from low-income countries and although many courses have thousands of registered students only 5-10% of them complete the course. MOOCs also implies that certain curriculum and teaching methods are superior and this could eventually wash over (or possibly washing out) local educational institutions, cultural norms and educational traditions.

With the Internet and social media, using educational apps makes the students highly susceptible to distraction and sidetracking. Even though proper use has shown to increase student performances, being distracted would be detrimental. Another disadvantage is increased potential for cheating. Smartphones can be very easy to hide and use inconspicuously, especially if their use is normalized in the classroom. These disadvantages can be managed with strict rules and regulations on mobile phone use.

Over-stimulation:

Electronic devices such as cellphones and computers facilitate rapid access to a stream of sources, each of which may receive cursory attention. Michel Rich, an associate professor at Harvard Medical School and executive director of the center on Media and Child Health in Boston, said of the digital generation,

"Their brains are rewarded not for staying on task, but for jumping to the next thing. The worry is we're raising a generation of kids in front of screens whose brains are going to be wired differently."

Students have always faced distractions; computers and cellphones are a particular challenge because the stream of data can interfere with focusing and learning. Although these technologies affect adults too, young people may be more influenced by it as their developing brains can easily become habituated to switching tasks and become unaccustomed to sustaining attention. Too much information, coming too rapidly, can overwhelm thinking.

Technology is "rapidly and profoundly altering our brains." High exposure levels stimulate brain cell alteration and release neurotransmitters, which causes the strengthening of some neural pathways and weakening of others. This leads to heightened stress levels on the brain that, at first, boost energy levels, but, over time, actually augment memory, impair cognition, lead to depression, alter the neural circuitry of the hippocampus, amygdala and prefrontal cortex.

These are the brain regions that control mood and thought. If unchecked, the underlying structure of the brain could be altered. Over-stimulation due to technology may begin too young. When children are exposed before the age of seven, important developmental tasks may be delayed, and bad learning habits might develop, which "deprives children of the exploration and play that they need to develop." Media psychology is an emerging specialty field that embraces electronic devices and the sensory behaviors occurring from the use of educational technology in learning.

Sociocultural criticism:

According to Lai, "the learning environment is a complex system where the interplay and interactions of many things impact the outcome of learning." When technology is brought into an educational setting, the pedagogical setting changes in that technology-driven teaching can change the entire meaning of an activity without adequate research validation. If technology monopolizes an activity, students can begin to develop the sense that "life would scarcely be thinkable without technology."

Leo Marx considered the word "technology" itself as problematic, susceptible to reification and "phantom objectivity", which conceals its fundamental nature as something that is only valuable insofar as it benefits the human condition. Technology ultimately comes down to affecting the relations between people, but this notion is obfuscated when technology is treated as an abstract notion devoid of good and evil.

Langdon Winner makes a similar point by arguing that the underdevelopment of the philosophy of technology leaves us with an overly simplistic reduction in our discourse to the supposedly dichotomous notions of the "making" versus the "uses" of new technologies, and that a narrow focus on "use" leads us to believe that all technologies are neutral in moral standing. These critiques would have us ask not, "How do we maximize the role or advancement of technology in education?", but, rather, "What are the social and human consequences of adopting any particular technology?"

Winner viewed technology as a "form of life" that not only aids human activity, but that also represents a powerful force in reshaping that activity and its meaning. For example, the use of robots in the industrial workplace may increase productivity, but they also radically change the process of production itself, thereby redefining what is meant by "work" in such a setting.

In education, standardized testing has arguably redefined the notions of learning and assessment. We rarely explicitly reflect on how strange a notion it is that a number between, say, 0 and 100 could accurately reflect a person's knowledge about the world. According to Winner, the recurring patterns in everyday life tend to become an unconscious process that we learn to take for granted. Winner writes,

By far the greatest latitude of choice exists the very first time a particular instrument, system, or technique is introduced. Because choices tend to become strongly fixed in material equipment, economic investment, and social habit, the original flexibility vanishes for all practical purposes once the initial commitments are made. In that sense technological innovations are similar to legislative acts or political findings that establish a framework for public order that will endure over many generations.

When adopting new technologies, there may be one best chance to "get it right." Seymour Papert (p. 32) points out a good example of a (bad) choice that has become strongly fixed in social habit and material equipment: our "choice" to use the QWERTY keyboard.

The QWERTY arrangement of letters on the keyboard was originally chosen, not because it was the most efficient for typing, but because early typewriters were prone to jam when adjacent keys were struck in quick succession. Now that typing has become a digital process, this is no longer an issue, but the QWERTY arrangement lives on as a social habit, one that is very difficult to change.

Neil Postman endorsed the notion that technology impacts human cultures, including the culture of classrooms, and that this is a consideration even more important than considering the efficiency of a new technology as a tool for teaching. 

Regarding the computer's impact on education, Postman writes "What we need to consider about the computer has nothing to do with its efficiency as a teaching tool. We need to know in what ways it is altering our conception of learning, and how in conjunction with television, it undermines the old idea of school."

There is an assumption that technology is inherently interesting so it must be helpful in education; based on research by Daniel Willingham, that is not always the case. He argues that it does not necessarily matter what the technological medium is, but whether or not the content is engaging and utilizes the medium in a beneficial way.

Digital divide:
Main article: Digital divide

The concept of the digital divide is a gap between those who have access to digital technologies and those who do not. Access may be associated with age, gender, socio-economic status, education, income, ethnicity, and geography.

Data protection:

According to a report by the Electronic Frontier Foundation, large amounts of personal data on children is collected by electronic devices that are distributed in schools in the United States. Often far more information than necessary is collected, uploaded and stored indefinitely.

​Aside name and date of birth, this information can include the child's browsing history, search terms, location data, contact lists, as well as behavioral information. Parents are not informed or, if informed, have little choice. According to the report, this constant surveillance resulting from educational technology can "warp children's privacy expectations, lead them to self-censor, and limit their creativity".

Teacher Training:

Since technology is not the end goal of education, but rather a means by which it can be accomplished, educators must have a good grasp of the technology and its advantages and disadvantages. Teacher training aims for effective integration of classroom technology.

The evolving nature of technology may unsettle teachers, who may experience themselves as perpetual novices. Finding quality materials to support classroom objectives is often difficult. Random professional development days are inadequate.

According to Jenkins, "Rather than dealing with each technology in isolation, we would do better to take an ecological approach, thinking about the interrelationship among different communication technologies, the cultural communities that grow up around them, and the activities they support."

Jenkins also suggested that the traditional school curriculum guided teachers to train students to be autonomous problem solvers. However, today's workers are increasingly asked to work in teams, drawing on different sets of expertise, and collaborating to solve problem.

Learning styles and the methods of collecting information have evolved, and "students often feel locked out of the worlds described in their textbooks through the depersonalized and abstract prose used to describe them". 

These twenty-first century skills can be attained through the incorporation and engagement with technology. Changes in instruction and use of technology can also promote a higher level of learning among students with different types of intelligence

Assessment:
​Main articles: Educational assessment and Electronic assessment

There are two distinct issues of assessment: the assessment of educational technology and assessment with technology.

Assessments of educational technology have included the Follow Through project.
Educational assessment with technology may be either formative assessment or summative assessment.

Instructors use both types of assessment to understand student progress and learning in the classroom. Technology has helped teachers create better assessments to help understand where students who are having trouble with the material are having issues.

Formative assessment is more difficult, as the perfect form is ongoing and allows the students to show their learning in different ways depending on their learning styles.

Technology has helped some teachers make their formative assessments better, particularly through the use of classroom response systems (CRS). 

A CRS is a tool in which the students each have a handheld device that partners up with the teacher's computer. The instructor then asks multiple choice or true or false questions and the students answer on their device. 

Depending on the software used, the answers may then be shown on a graph so students and teacher can see the percentage of students who gave each answer and the teacher can focus on what went wrong.

Summative assessments are more common in classrooms and are usually set up to be more easily graded, as they take the form of tests or projects with specific grading schemes.

One huge benefit to tech-based testing is the option to give students immediate feedback on their answers. When students get these responses, they are able to know how they are doing in the class which can help push them to improve or give them confidence that they are doing well.

Technology also allows for different kinds of summative assessment, such as digital presentations, videos, or anything else the teacher/students may come up with, which allows different learners to show what they learned more effectively. Teachers can also use technology to post graded assessments online for students to have a better idea of what a good project is.

Electronic assessment uses information technology. It encompasses several potential applications, which may be teacher or student oriented, including educational assessment throughout the continuum of learning, such as: 
E-Marking is an examiner led activity closely related to other e-assessment activities such as e-testing, or e-learning which are student led. E-marking allows markers to mark a scanned script or online response on a computer screen rather than on paper.

There are no restrictions to the types of tests that can use e-marking, with e-marking applications designed to accommodate multiple choice, written, and even video submissions for performance examinations.

E-marking software is used by individual educational institutions and can also be rolled out to the participating schools of awarding exam organisations. e-marking has been used to mark many well known high stakes examinations, which in the US includes the SAT test for college admissions. 

Analytics:

The importance of self-assessment through tools made available on Educational Technology platforms has been growing. Self-assessment in education technology relies on students analyzing their strengths, weaknesses and areas where improvement is possible to set realistic goals in learning, improve their educational performances and track their progress. One of the unique tools for self-assessment made possible by education technology is Analytics. Analytics is data gathered on the student's activities on the learning platform, drawn into meaningful patterns that leads to a valid conclusion, usually through the medium of data visualization such as graphs.

Expenditure:

The five key sectors of the e-learning industry are consulting, content, technologies, services and support. Worldwide, e-learning was estimated in 2000 to be over $48 billion according to conservative estimates.

Commercial growth has been brisk. In 2014, the worldwide commercial market activity was estimated at $6 billion venture capital over the past five years, with self-paced learning generating $35.6 billion in 2011. North American e-learning generated $23.3 billion in revenue in 2013, with a 9% growth rate in cloud-based authoring tools and learning platforms.

Careers:
Main articles: Educational technologist and Educational psychologist

Educational technologists and psychologists apply basic educational and psychological research into an evidence-based applied science (or a technology) of learning or instruction.

In research, these professions typically require a graduate degree (Master's, Doctorate, Ph.D., or D.Phil.) in a field related to educational psychology, educational media, experimental psychology, cognitive psychology or, more purely, in the fields of educational, instructional or human performance technology or instructional design.

In industry, educational technology is utilized to train students and employees by a wide range of learning and communication practitioners, including: 
See Also: ___________________________________________________________________________
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Use of Technology in Teaching and Learning 
(U.S. Department of Education) 

"Technology ushers in fundamental structural changes that can be integral to achieving significant improvements in productivity.

Used to ​support both teaching and learning, technology infuses classrooms with digital learning tools, such as computers and hand held devices; expands course offerings, experiences, and learning materials; supports learning 24 hours a day, 7 days a week; builds 21st century skills; increases student engagement and motivation; and accelerates learning.

Technology also has the power to transform teaching by ushering in a new model of connected teaching. This model links teachers to their students and to professional content, resources, and systems to help them improve their own instruction and personalize learning.

Online learning opportunities and the use of open educational resources and other technologies can increase educational productivity by accelerating the rate of learning; reducing costs associated with instructional materials or program delivery; and better utilizing teacher time.

The links on this page are provided for users convenience and are not an endorsement. See full disclaimer. 

Virtual or online learning: 48 states and the District of Columbia currently support online learning opportunities that range from supplementing classroom instruction on an occasional basis to enrolling students in full-time programs. These opportunities include dual enrollment, credit recovery, and summer school programs, and can make courses such as Advanced Placement and honors, or remediation classes available to students.

Both core subjects and electives can be taken online, many supported by online learning materials. While some online schools or programs are homegrown, many others contract with private providers or other states to provide online learning opportunities.

Full-time online schools: The following online or virtual schools enroll students on a full-time basis. Students enrolled in these schools are not attending a bricks and mortar school; instead they receive all of their instruction and earn all of their credits through the online school.

State operated:
  • The Florida Virtual School – An online school that provides full-time learning opportunities to students in grades K-12. Districts can also work with Florida Virtual School to provide blended learning opportunities to students by enabling them to access online courses from school sites. Additional link here.
  • ​North Carolina Virtual Public School – An online high school offering 120 courses to students both during and after the school day. The courses offered include Advanced Placement and honors courses, world languages, electives, credit recovery, and online college courses. The school also provides test preparation and career planning services to students.

District operated:
  • Karval Online Education – A public K-12 online school for Colorado residents that provides a free computer for the family to use while the student is enrolled and provides reimbursement opportunities to offset Internet and other educational expenses. Dual credit courses are available to juniors and seniors.
  • ​Salem-Keizer Online – This online Oregon high school is an accredited program of Roberts High School in the Salem-Keizer Public School District in Oregon. The school provides 24/7 learning opportunities to students living within the boundaries of the school district and who are not enrolled in their neighborhood public school. Tuition is only required for students enrolled in summer school courses. 

Charter operated:
  • Guided Online Academic Learning Academy – An online public charter high school in Colorado for students ages 14-21. The Academy offers more than 200 courses to students as well as a variety of support services, activities to support student-to-student interactions, and drop-in centers to facilitate enrollment, counseling, assessments, and other services.

​Blended learning:

Blended learning opportunities incorporate both face-to-face and online learning opportunities. The degree to which online learning takes place, and the way it is integrated into the curriculum, can vary across schools.

The strategy of blending online learning with school-based instruction is often utilized to accommodate students’ diverse learning styles and to enable them to work before or after school in ways that are not possible with full-time conventional classroom instruction.

Online learning has the potential to improve educational productivity by accelerating the rate of learning, taking advantage of learning time outside of school hours, reducing the cost of instructional materials, and better utilizing teacher time. These strategies can be particularly useful in rural areas where blended or online learning can help teachers and students in remote areas overcome distance.

State operated:
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  • Michigan Virtual School – Michigan’s students are able to take online classes and access online learning tools from their middle and high schools via this virtual school. Michigan Virtual also provides full-time learning opportunities to middle and high school students. Districts in the state work with the virtual school to grant course credit and diplomas to students.

District operated:

  • Walled Lake Consolidated School District – This Michigan district’s online summer school credit recovery program was expanded to include online learning opportunities during the school year. Students can now enroll in up to two online courses each semester while continuing to attend school for at least four hours a day. Eleventh and twelfth graders may also choose to enroll concurrently in postsecondary courses via a partnership with a local community college. The credit recovery program reduced per-student costs by 57 percent and the district estimates that by offering two online courses during the school year it has been able to save $517 per student on instructional costs.
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School operated:

  • San Francisco Flex Academy – This high school is a five-days-a-week hybrid school that provides an online curriculum that personalizes learning and enables students to move through courses at their own pace. These online courses are taken at the school site and are supported by credentialed teachers.
  • Rocketship – This elementary charter school network in California is a hybrid school model. Each day, students attend the Learning Lab where they use computers to support their individual learning needs. These Labs do not require certified teachers, enabling Rocketship to reinvest the savings in training, Response to Intervention, higher teacher salaries, facilities, and academic deans. While students are in the Lab, teachers are engaging in planning.
  • Carpe Diem Collegiate High School – Carpe Diem is a hybrid school in Arizona that offers computer-assisted instruction and onsite teacher facilitators. This model enables students to progress as they demonstrate mastery.
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Open educational resources are teaching, learning, and research resources that reside in the public domain and are freely available to anyone over the Web. They are an important element of an infrastructure for learning and range from podcasts to digital libraries to textbooks and games.

It is critical to ensure that open educational resources meet standards of quality, integrity, and accuracy—as with any other educational resource—and that they are accessible to students with disabilities. 
  • Open High School of Utah – This school uses open educational resources to create an open source curriculum. To create this curriculum, teachers gather and sort through open source materials, align them with state standards, and modify the materials to meet student needs.  
  • CK-12 – CK-12 FlexBooks are customizable, standards-aligned, digital textbooks for grades K-12. They are intended to provide high-quality educational content that will serve both as core text and provide an adaptive environment for learning. 
  • Leadership Public Schools (LPS) – In each of the four LPS schools, teachers work together to utilize open-source materials to meet the specific learning needs of their students. Through a partnership with CK-12, LPS has developed College Access Readers, a series of online books with literacy supports embedded in them to meet the individual needs of students, from advanced to under-performing students. 
  • Khan Academy – The Khan Academy is a not-for-profit organization providing digital learning resources, including an extensive video library, practice exercises, and assessments. These resources focus on K-12 math and science topics such as biology, chemistry, and physics, and include resources on the humanities, finance, and history.

Use digital resources well: Schools can use digital resources in a variety of ways to support teaching and learning. Electronic grade books, digital portfolios, learning games, and real-time feedback on teacher and student performance, are a few ways that technology can be utilized to power learning.
  • High Tech High – High Tech High (HTH) is a network of eleven California charter schools offering project-based learning opportunities to students in grades K-12. HTH links technical and academic studies and focuses on personalization and the connection of learning to the real word. To support student learning and share the results of project-based learning, HTH makes a wealth of resources available online, including teacher and student portfolios, videos, lessons, and other resources.
  • New Technology High School – At this California school, student work is assessed across classes and grades, and feedback is made available to students via online grade books. These grade books are continually updated so that students can see how they are doing not only in each course, but also on each of their learning outcomes, averaged across all their courses. Electronic learning portfolios contain examples of students’ work and associated evaluations across all classes and grades. New Tech High is part of the national New Tech Network.
  • Quest to Learn – This school, located in New York, utilizes games and other forms of digital media to provide students with a curriculum that is design-led and inquiry-based. The goal of this model is to use education technologies to support students in becoming active problem solvers and critical thinkers, and to provide students with constant feedback on their achievement.

Click here for the full article by the U.S. Department of Education.
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Do Digital Games Improve Children’s Math Skills?
(by Education Week May 16, 2017)

In Gregory Smith's 5th grade class in Tampa, Fla., two girls are beating the majority of their class in an online math-strategy game named TiViTz

That is remarkable given the original disparity between the two students: The girl who is No. 1 on the class leader-board scored a level five—indicating mastery—on Florida's state test in math last year. The other girl, who is No. 3 on the leader board, had scored a level one on the state test.

"When they played each other at first, the student at level five [on the state test] won almost every time," Smith said. "Over the last month, it has been a very close split between the two young ladies."

The students have been playing the online game since January. Sometimes, the girls play against each other and sometimes they play against the computer, Smith said.

"The student who scored a level one is doing math that's harder because she's playing with a friend," he said.

That sort of increase in student achievement is what educators in the Hillsborough County school system are hoping to see with the adoption of TiViTz, a math-strategy game that covers concepts from single-digit addition to multiplying and dividing by percentages.

Smith, who teaches at Witter Elementary, which is part of Hillsborough, conducted an informal study that found that after ur months of playing TiViTz games online, his students' math-skills scores went up significantly, from an average of 49 percent to 83 percent. The students enjoyment of math also nearly doubled, by their own ratings.

​"I've seen enthusiasm in some of the children who normally didn't do as well, paper-to-pencil, but when they're doing it because of the game, they're doing better at it," he said.

"If you don't like something, you're definitely not going to do well in it. And if you don't think you're going to do well, you're definitely not going to do well," Smith continued.

That's the philosophy behind digital math games, whether they're played online or through an app. Many educators and researchers say the games can help students both improve their math skills and enjoy math more. Nearly three-quarters of K-8 teachers report using digital games for instruction, according to a 2014 study by the Games and Learning Publishing Council, a project of the Joan Ganz Cooney Center.

As long as these digital games are meaningful and motivating to children, they can have a real impact on learning, said Douglas Clements, a professor of early-childhood learning at the University of Denver, who has studied the effectiveness of digital math games.

Digital games allow students to take an active role in their learning and see the visual connection between the game play and the math. The games also provide constant positive or corrective feedback that is "really hard for teachers to provide to individual kids," Clements said.

And while there has been some pushback, especially in the early years, against students having too much screen time, Clements said the research shows that children don't need to play the games for hours to see results.

"We have found that a focused five-to-15 minutes, just a couple times a week, can make a big difference for kids," he said.

Gathering Research:

The 206,800-student Hillsborough district is now expanding on Smith's informal study by looking at all 148 elementary schools and matching classrooms that are playing the digital game with those who aren't. The paired groups will have similar student demographics, so the district can get a better sense of how the game is improving student outcomes, said Larry Plank, the district's director of K-12 science, technology, engineering, and mathematics, or STEM, education.

The district is also looking at whether the improved math performance shows up on state assessments as well as the district's formative assessments, he said.

And this summer, the district will conduct a study across approximately 50 K-8 after-school programs to gather data on digital games' use in that context, Plank said.

SAS Games, which makes TiViTz, is not paying for the study or otherwise involved, said Siobhan Mullen, the company's CEO. That's key to producing trustworthy results, she and other game company executives said.

"I know from personal experience that games play a role in engagement. ... [But] the only way I know they work is by running a large, controlled study in the field," said Vadim Polikov, the CEO and founder of Legends of Learning, which creates digital games for middle school science and other subjects.

Legends of Learning recently partnered with researchers from Vanderbilt University to test the effectiveness of an 8th grade U.S. history digital game. Over 1,000 students participated across seven states. Thirteen teachers each taught two sections of 8th grade U.S. history: One section would receive the teacher's regular instruction, and the other used curriculum-aligned games for at least half of class time.

After three weeks, both sections were tested, and students who had played the games outperformed their peers at a statistically significant level.

In addition to learning that student outcomes increased, the researchers found that both students and teachers enjoyed the games. Teachers reported that their students were more engaged while using the game, and that the games were easy to incorporate into the existing curriculum.

The digital-math-game company Motion Math was born out of a research project by Stanford University graduate students. The company, which develops games for students in kindergarten through 6th grades, has since worked with a researcher to study the efficacy of the games.

That peer-reviewed study, published in 2013 in the journal Games and Culture, tracked 122 Los Angeles 5th graders who played Motion Math's fraction game for five days for 20 minutes each day. The students improved by 15 percent on their fractions estimation, and 10 percent in their attitudes toward fractions, based on standardized-test items.

A Bright Spot for Girls:

One of the early findings in the Hillsborough County district's adoption of TiViTz is that 55 percent of the players and many of the top winners are girls like two of the top scorers in Smith's class.

As research shows that girls are typically more anxious about math than boys, "thatdid raise an eyebrow or two," Plank said. "I think it's an engaging, fun way [to learn math] that is nonthreatening, because it's utilized in a very social manner—students play each other one-on-one."

Motion Math CEO Jacob Klein said his company consciously chooses female characters for the games, and stays away from the "violent tropes of video games." Students can choose avatars in their play that reflect their gender and skin color.

Since the math gender gap widens as students progress through school, Klein said, "early grades are a great time to build up almost a reserve in interest and skill."

That's critical for both genders, SAS Games' Mullen said, since there are not enough people in the pipeline to meet the demand in the STEM fields.

"If we focus on elementary math, we could catch them before they drift away and decide they don't like it," she said. "Show why [math] is relevant to their future world and make it part of their current world."

"We shouldn't look to old media such as a paper-and-pencil quiz as the arbiter of knowledge," Klein said. "If a student can do something smartly in a digital environment, that matters, that counts. Even if they can't yet introduce that in paper and pencil, that doesn't lessen the skill. ... It's just a different place for knowledge."

Coverage of early-math education is supported in part by a grant from the CME Group Foundation. Education Week retains sole editorial control over the content of this coverage.

[End of Article]
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Best Student-Collaboration Tools by Common Sense Education

These 29 tools mix productivity and creativity, getting students to share and collaborate on projects, give and take feedback, annotate, brainstorm, make media, or just hang out.

No matter the use, there's tech here that'll show students how collaboration leads to better knowledge building as well as the development of social and emotional skills like teamwork. 

Interested in how you might use some of these tools in the classroom? Check out our page "Give Every Student a Stake in Group Work".

Note also buttons for reading the full review along with accessing the web page. You can even purchase and download any tool that you might wish!

Click here for full list.







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Impact of 2019-2020 Coronavirus Pandemic on Education Pictured (with Video) below: With students sent home to take classes online, will they decide the experience of being on campus isn't worth the price and hurt small colleges? 
The 2019–20 coronavirus pandemic has affected educational systems worldwide, leading to the widespread closures of schools and universities.

As of 3 April 2020, over 421 million learners were out of school due to school closures in response to COVID-19. According to UNESCO monitoring, over 200 countries have implemented nationwide closures, impacting about 98% of the world's student population.

On 23 March 2020, Cambridge International Examinations (CIE) released a statement announcing the cancellation of Cambridge IGCSE, Cambridge O Level, Cambridge International AS & A Level, Cambridge AICE Diploma, and Cambridge Pre-U examinations for the May/June 2020 series across all countries. International Baccalaureate exams have also been cancelled.

School closures impact not only students, teachers, and families, but have far-reaching economic and societal consequences.

School closures in response to COVID-19 have shed light on various social and economic issues, including: 
The impact was more severe for disadvantaged children and their families, causing interrupted learning, compromised nutrition, childcare problems, and consequent economic cost to families who could not work.

In response to school closures, UNESCO recommended the use of distance learning programs and open educational applications and platforms that schools and teachers can use to reach learners remotely and limit the disruption of education.

Click on any of the following blue hyperlinks for more about the Impact of the Coronavirus on Education:







Virtual School (K12) including the Impact of the 2019-2020 Coronavirus on Education
An online school (virtual school or e-school or cyber-school) teaches students entirely or primarily online or through the Internet. It has been defined as "education that uses one or more technologies to deliver instruction to students who are separated from the instructor and to support regular and substantive interaction between the students.

Online education exists all around the world and is used for all levels of education (K-12, college, or graduate school). This type of learning enables the individuals to earn transferable credits, take recognized examinations, or advance to the next level of education over the Internet.

Virtual education is most commonly used at the high school or college level. Students who are of the age 30 or older, tend to study on online programs at higher rates. This group represents 41% of the online education population, while 35.5% of students ages 24–29 and 24.5% of students ages 15–23 participate in virtual education.

Virtual education is becoming increasing used worldwide. There are currently more than 4,700 colleges and universities that provide online courses to their students. In 2015, more than 6 million students were taking at least one course online, this number grew by 3.9% from the previous year. 29.7% of all higher education students are taking at least one distance course.

The total number of students studying on a campus exclusively dropped by 931,317 people between the years 2012 and 2015. Experts say that because the number of students studying at the college level is growing, there will also be an increase in the number of students enrolled in distance learning

Instructional models:

Instructional models vary, ranging from distance learning types which provide study materials for independent self-paced study, to live, interactive classes where students communicate with a teacher in a class group lesson. Class sizes range widely from a small group of 6 pupils or students to hundreds in a virtual school.

The courses that are independent and self paced are called asynchronous courses. Typically for this type of learning, the students are given the assignments and information, and are expected to complete the assignments by the due date. This is done on their own time. There is no scheduled time when the class meets. Usually the only interactions that takes place are through discussion boards, blogs, and wikis.

On the other hand, synchronous online courses happen in real time. The instructor and students all interact online at the same time. This is done either through text, video, or audio chat. Therefore these lessons are socially constructed. In addition to the scheduled class time, there is usually additional assignments to complete.

Hybrid, sometimes also called blended, courses are when students learn and interact both in person and online. Theses classes meet in person during the semester in addition to computer based communication.

In 2008 an assessment found high dropout rates. As in other computerized environments, once the glamour of the new methods wore off it became clear that human skills were paramount to success, in this case teaching and welfare expertise.

Where this is recognized retention is good, i.e. in the synchronous, socially structured models; in the huge MOOC style courses the same isolation problems as correspondence learning are found.

Sometimes referred to as "distance learning", correspondence schools offered students an alternative to the traditional brick and mortar meetings within a schoolhouse. These schools utilized the postal service for student-teacher interaction, or used two-way radio transmissions, sometimes with pre-recorded television broadcasts. Students were expected to study their learning material independently and, in some cases, meet with a proctor to be tested.

Virtual schools now exist all around the world. Over the past decade, K-12 online instruction has dramatically increased in both Canada and the United States. Some of these virtual schools have been integrated into public schools (particularly in the United States), where students sit in computer labs and do their work online. Students can also be completely home-schooled, or they can take any combination of public/private/home-schooling and online classes.

The International Association for K-12:

Online Learning (iNACOL) developed a set of standards released in September 2007 and updated on October 12, 2011. These standards will help monitor online programs and ensure that every provider of education is accredited.

Pricing and location:

Where online methods are integrated with State provision, costs follow state school standards. Otherwise fees must be met by the student, or parents. Many US school districts are now creating their own online services to avoid paying external providers. Such students can graduate from their home district without ever leaving home. In most of these cases, students are given computers, books, and even Internet service to complete coursework from home.

With the resources of the Internet as a library, and the ease of making online study materials, there is usually a comparatively small requirement for textbooks. Most courses will provide electronic materials free of cost, or included in the course fee. Textbooks are most often required for an exam syllabus course.

Advantages and disadvantages:

Advocates of online schools and online learning point to a number of advantages:

  • There is a lack of costly and tiring travel involved, with a much greater dependability of lessons. Weather disrupting transport is almost irrelevant (though an area subject to frequent power cuts will suffer consequent disruptions). Similarly common health disruptions through minor illness or injury will not halt learning, because the physical demands are so much less. Transcripts of lessons can plug short absences.
  • Many students who have personal or health conditions that make physical school difficult or impossible can instead learn using virtual educational programs.
  • Ideal for individuals and families who need flexible arrangements. However, synchronous learning does impose limits due to time zones, which tends to divide online schools in Europe and Asia from North America.
  • The integration of Internet resources provides a huge library of content, and students quickly become adept at online research.
  • There is a greater flexibility for self-learners or gifted students to explore learning beyond the standard curriculum. Independent minded students, those with specialist skills and ambitions, can develop at their own preferred pacing using net resources.
  • Online schools can be equalizers, as age, appearance, and background are far less obvious. Groups can be categorized by personal ability.
  • Students and pupils benefit from exposure to others in different cultures of the world, which enriches understanding of history, geography, religions and politics, and develops social skills.
  • Part-time students with jobs or family commitments may benefit from the flexibility of online schedules, as claimed by supporters of virtual education.
  • For asynchronous education, a student may study, learn, or do their homework when they have free time. Therefore, this gives the students flexibility with their education.
  • It is argued that online learning is more effective and efficient at providing education to a large number of people no matter the physical distance between the students and professors than traditional education.
  • There are claims that online education "develops higher order skills such as collaborating across time and place and solving complex real-world problems" better than in-class learning.
  • Students have the ability to avoid the requirement of traveling to a physical school.
  • As pointed out by advocates of online schooling, this type of education could be beneficial in rural areas, where the distance between students and educators is vast.
  • A student may have the ability to take a course that is not offered at a location near them.
  • Some affirm that virtual education is very cost effective for schools or districts because it allows a teacher to instruct more students than in a face-to-face classroom setting.
  • It has been claimed that courses online are less expensive for the students than course taken in traditional school, college, or university.

Some disadvantages of virtual school includes:

  • Critics argue that students do not interact with their instructors or peers face-to-face, which lends itself to a "lack of socialization" unless supplemented using online groups such as Elluminate or Wimba, or by attending other social activities outside of school.
  • A challenge pointed out by critics is that there is an added challenge of staying focused while in the home environment. It has been reported that many students have a difficult time staying on task when participating in learning online.
  • Some argue that the cost of starting up an online school is expensive.
  • As pointed out by opposers of online school, not everyone has access to digital technologies which would prohibited them to attend virtual schools, unless their local libraries or community programs may offer access to computers and research materials.
  • An argument identified by critics is that virtual schools are relatively new and because of that there are no seldom methods of evaluating their effectiveness in educating their students.
  • As claimed in a study done by Eric Bettinger and Susanna Loeb, on average, online students "do substantially worse than students in the same face-to-face course".
  • Critics have pointed out that it is common for technology to be unpredictable, glitch, or not function correctly.
  • Some people who oppose virtual education have argued that obtaining a job with an online degree may be harder because potential employers may be skeptical of the credibility of these virtual programs.
  • The assignments due for online schooling may not be assessing the ability of the students because many answers can be found on the Internet, as claimed by critics of online schooling.

History:

The mid-1990s saw the advent of completely virtual schools. Many of today's virtual schools are descendants of correspondence schools. The earlier online schools began in Australia, New Zealand, North America and the UK, generally in areas where low density population made schooling by conventional means difficult and expensive to provide.

In 2008 an assessment found high dropout rates. As in other computerized environments, once the glamour of the new methods wore off it became clear that human skills were paramount to success, in this case teaching and welfare expertise. Where this is recognized retention is good, i.e. in the synchronous, socially structured models; in the huge MOOC style courses the same isolation problems as correspondence learning are found.

Sometimes referred to as "distance learning", correspondence schools offered students an alternative to the traditional brick and mortar meetings within a schoolhouse. These schools utilized the postal service for student-teacher interaction, or used two-way radio transmissions, sometimes with pre-recorded television broadcasts. Students were expected to study their learning material independently and, in some cases, meet with a proctor to be tested.

Virtual schools now exist all around the world. Over the past decade, K-12 online instruction has dramatically increased in both Canada and the United States. Some of these virtual schools have been integrated into public schools (particularly in the United States), where students sit in computer labs and do their work online. Students can also be completely home-schooled, or they can take any combination of public/private/home-schooling and online classes.

The International Association for K-12 Online Learning (iNACOL) developed a set of standards released in September 2007 and updated on October 12, 2011. These standards will help monitor online programs and ensure that every provider of education is accredited.

Some disadvantages of virtual school includes:
  • Critics argue that students do not interact with their instructors or peers face-to-face, which lends itself to a "lack of socialization" unless supplemented using online groups such as Elluminate or Wimba, or by attending other social activities outside of school.
  • A challenge pointed out by critics is that there is an added challenge of staying focused while in the home environment. It has been reported that many students have a difficult time staying on task when participating in learning online.
  • Some argue that the cost of starting up an online school is expensive.
  • As pointed out by opposers of online school, not everyone has access to digital technologies which would prohibited them to attend virtual schools, unless their local libraries or community programs may offer access to computers and research materials.
  • An argument identified by critics is that virtual schools are relatively new and because of that there are no seldom methods of evaluating their effectiveness in educating their students.
  • As claimed in a study done by Eric Bettinger and Susanna Loeb, on average, online students "do substantially worse than students in the same face-to-face course".
  • Critics have pointed out that it is common for technology to be unpredictable, glitch, or not function correctly.
  • Some people who oppose virtual education have argued that obtaining a job with an online degree may be harder because potential employers may be skeptical of the credibility of these virtual programs.
  • The assignments due for online schooling may not be assessing the ability of the students because many answers can be found on the Internet, as claimed by critics of online schooling.

See also:







THE National Standards for Quality Online Learning (NSQOL) ​[A word from your Webhost: due to Covid 19, most schools have switched to online teaching. However, there is a huge concern that online may not include the best of one-on-one interaction between the teacher and student, that physical schools offer. Particularly important is that there be standards that any e-learning schools follows, like NSQOL offers!]
​COVID-19

In response to COVID-19 and its impact on the field of education and online learning, the NSQ Project team would like to remind educators of the updated National Standards for Quality (NSQ) Online Learning.  The (NSQ) standard sets include Online Courses, Online Teaching, and Online Programs. These are essential frameworks for K-12 districts developing quality online learning plans to deal with long-term school closure possibilities.  These standard sets, updated in 2019, have been the benchmark for online programs since 2007. We invite you to explore the resources on this site.

Contact us for further information.
​The National Standards for Quality Online Courses, Online Teaching and Online Programs
have been the benchmark for online programs, districts and state agencies since their creation in 2007.
​
Quality Online Learning
The Virtual Learning Leadership Alliance (VLLA) and Quality Matters (QM) are leading a broad-based effort to revise the National Standards for Quality Online Learning, building upon the work started by The International Association for K-12 Online Learning (iNACOL).
The ​NEW Standards
Click here to view or download the most current versions of each of the standards sets. National Standards for Quality Online Courses is currently being revised.
Designed to complement one another, the National Standards for Quality have been the benchmark for online programs, districts and state agencies since their creation in 2007.
Click on any of the following for Additional Resources
About the National Standards for Quality Online Learning:

​The National Standards for Quality Online Learning is an ongoing project to continuously revise the National Standards for Quality Online Courses, Programs and Teaching led by a partnership between Quality Matters and the Virtual Learning Leadership Alliance with widespread community support.

History and Purpose:

The National Standards for Quality Online Courses, Programs, and Teaching have been the most used and respected benchmark for states, districts, and schools aspiring to provide quality online courses, programs and teaching, since first being introduced by the Southern Regional Education Board (SREB).

The Virtual Learning Leadership Alliance (VLLA) and Quality Matters (QM) organized a committee of experts with various backgrounds in the field of K-12 online learning to take the lead in refreshing the National Standards for Quality Online Courses, Programs, and Teaching previously updated and maintained by the International Association for K-12 Online Learning (iNACOL).
​
The purpose of the National Standards for Quality (NSQ) revision initiative is to provide the K-12 online and blended learning community with an updated set of openly licensed standards to help evaluate and improve online courses, online teaching and online programs.

Both the VLLA and QM, as well as the project contributors, are committed to a continuous improvement cycle for all three sets of standards for online learning, and to a common philosophy that standards in such a dynamic area as digital learning must be updated regularly to provide a useful benchmark for schools, districts, statewide programs and commercial suppliers of online and blended learning.

Revision Process:

The National Standards for Quality Online Learning are a family and meant to complement one another in their implementation and use. Each set of standards is revised by a team selected for their expertise in either K-12 online learning research or practice.

The revision of each set starts with a comprehensive Literature Review so as to ensure the standards are supported by research. Next, a widespread survey is deployed to the community — consisting mainly of users of the standards.

Respondents are encouraged to give comprehensive feedback on the standards, including what areas they would like to see revised, topics they would like to see included, and any standards they would like to see removed, along with a rationale. The results from these surveys are compiled and distributed to the standards workgroup teams, who use the feedback, along with the literature review and other correlation documents, to inform the proposed revisions.

Once a draft of the new edition is complete, it is sent out to an additional set of reviewers, who provide additional feedback. This additional feedback provides a final bird’s eye view of the standards, and is incorporated into a final draft.

The new editions of the National Standards for Quality Online Courses, Programs, and Teaching will be continuously revised to keep abreast with the most current research and best practices in the field. Members of the online learning community will continue to play an important role in contributing to the revisions of each standard set.







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Online Education, including an Online Degree and a List of Online Colleges in the United StatesPictured below: The best accredited online Colleges in 2020, according to U.S. News & World Report
​[Your WebHost: Keep in mind that,  while this Wikipedia article goes back to a time when there was no  Internet, we are primarily focused on online learning]

Click here for an alphabetical List of Online Collages in the United States.

Distance education or distance learning is the education of students who may not always be physically present at a school. Traditionally, this usually involved correspondence courses wherein the student corresponded with the school via post.

Today, it involves online education. A distance learning program can be completely distance learning, or a combination of distance learning and traditional classroom instruction (called hybrid or blended).

Massive open online courses (MOOCs), offering large-scale interactive participation and open access through the World Wide Web or other network technologies, are recent educational modes in distance education.

A number of other terms (distributed learning, e-learning, m-learning, online learning, virtual classroom etc.) are used roughly synonymously with distance education.

Technologies:

Internet technology has enabled many forms of distance learning through open educational resources and facilities such as e-learning and MOOCs. Although the expansion of the Internet blurs the boundaries, distance education technologies are divided into two modes of delivery: synchronous learning and asynchronous learning.

In synchronous learning, all participants are "present" at the same time. In this regard, it resembles traditional classroom teaching methods despite the participants being located remotely.

It requires a timetable to be organized. Examples of Synchronous Technology include: 
Web conferencing software helps to facilitate meetings in distance learning courses and usually contain additional interaction tools such as text chat, polls, hand raising, emoticons etc. These tools also support asynchronous participation by students being able to listen to recordings of synchronous sessions.

Immersive environments (notably SecondLife) have also been used to enhance participant presence in distance education courses. Another form of synchronous learning that has been entering the classroom over the last couple of years is the use of robot proxies[ including those that allow sick students to attend classes.

Some universities have been starting to use robot proxies to enable more engaging synchronous hybrid classes where both remote and in person students can be present and interact using telerobotics devices such as the Kubi Telepresence robot stand that looks around and the Double Robot that roams around. With these telepresence robots, the remote students have a seat at the table or desk instead of being on a screen on the wall.

In asynchronous learning, participants access course materials flexibly on their own schedules. Students are not required to be together at the same time. Mail correspondence, which is the oldest form of distance education, is an asynchronous delivery technology, as are message board forums, e-mail, video and audio recordings, print materials, voicemail, and fax.

The two methods can be combined. Many courses offered by both open universities and an increasing number of campus based institutions use periodic sessions of residential or day teaching to supplement the sessions delivered at a distance. This type of mixed distance and campus based education has recently come to be called "blended learning" or less often "hybrid learning". Many open universities uses a blend of technologies and a blend of learning modalities (face-to-face, distance, and hybrid) all under the rubric of "distance learning".

Distance learning can also use interactive radio instruction (IRI), interactive audio instruction (IAI), online virtual worlds, digital games, webinars, and webcasts, all of which are referred to as e-Learning.

Radio and television​

The rapid spread of film in the 1920s and radio in the 1930s led to proposals to use it for distance education. By 1938, at least 200 city school systems, 25 state boards of education, and many colleges and universities broadcast educational programs for the public schools. One line of thought was to use radio as a master teacher.

Experts in given fields broadcast lessons for pupils within the many schoolrooms of the public school system, asking questions, suggesting readings, making assignments, and conducting tests. This mechanizes education and leaves the local teacher only the tasks of preparing for the broadcast and keeping order in the classroom.

A typical setup came in Kentucky in 1948 when John Wilkinson Taylor, president of the University of Louisville, teamed up with NBC to use radio as a medium for distance education, The chairman of the Federal Communications Commission endorsed the project and predicted that the "college-by-radio" would put "American education 25 years ahead".

The University was owned by the city, and local residents would pay the low tuition rates, receive their study materials in the mail, and listen by radio to live classroom discussions that were held on campus.

Physicist Daniel Q. Posin also was a pioneer in the field of distance education when he hosted a televised course through DePaul University.

Charles Wedemeyer of the University of Wisconsin–Madison also promoted new methods. From 1964 to 1968, the Carnegie Foundation funded Wedemeyer's Articulated Instructional Media Project (AIM) which brought in a variety of communications technologies aimed at providing learning to an off-campus population. The radio courses faded away in the 1950s. Many efforts to use television along the same lines proved unsuccessful, despite heavy funding by the Ford Foundation.

From 1970 to 1972 the Coordinating Commission for Higher Education in California funded Project Outreach to study the potential of telecourses. The study included the University of California, California State University and the community colleges.

This study led to coordinated instructional systems legislation allowing the use of public funds for non-classroom instruction and paved the way for the emergence of telecourses as the precursor to the online courses and programs of today.

The Coastline Community Colleges, The Dallas County Community College District, and Miami Dade Community College led the way. The Adult Learning Service of the US Public Broadcasting Service came into being and the "wrapped" series, and individually produced telecourse for credit became a significant part of the history of distance education and online learning.

Internet:
Main article: Virtual education

The widespread use of computers and the internet have made distance learning easier and faster, and today virtual schools and virtual universities deliver full curricula online. The capacity of Internet to support voice, video, text and immersion teaching methods made earlier distinct forms of telephone, videoconferencing, radio, television, and text based education somewhat redundant. However, many of the techniques developed and lessons learned with earlier media are used in Internet delivery.

The first completely online course for credit was offered by the University of Toronto in 1984 through the Graduate School of Education (then called OISE: the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education). The topic was "Women and Computers in Education", dealing with gender issues and educational computing.

The first new and fully online university was founded in 1994 as the Open University of Catalonia, headquartered in Barcelona, Spain. In 1999 Jones International University was launched as the first fully online university accredited by a regional accrediting association in the US.

Between 2000 and 2008, enrollment in distance education courses increased rapidly in almost every country in both developed and developing countries. Many private, public, non-profit and for-profit institutions worldwide now offer distance education courses from the most basic instruction through to the highest levels of degree and doctoral programs. 

New York University, for example, offers online degrees in engineering and management-related fields through NYU Tandon Online. Levels of accreditation vary: widely respected universities such as Stanford University and Harvard now deliver online courses—but other online schools receive little outside oversight, and some are actually fraudulent, i.e., diploma mills. In the US, the Distance Education Accrediting Commission (DEAC) specializes in the accreditation of distance education institutions.

In the United States in 2011, it was found that a third of all the students enrolled in post-secondary education had taken an accredited online course in a postsecondary institution.

Even though growth rates are slowing, enrollment for online courses has been seen to increase with the advance in technology. The majority of public and private colleges now offer full academic programs online. These include, but are not limited to training programs in: 
Distance education has a long history, its use growning as more advanced technology has become available. By 2008, online learning programs were available in the United States in 44 states at the K-12 level.

Internet forums, online discussion group and online learning community can contribute to an efficacious distance education experience. Research shows that socialization plays an important role in some forms of distance education.

E-courses are also available. Some websites such as Khan Academy and MasterClass offer ones on many topics.

Paced and self-paced models:

Distance education can be delivered in a paced format similar to traditional campus-based models in which learners commence and complete a course at the same time. Paced delivery is currently the most common mode of distance education delivery.

Alternatively, some institutions offer self-paced programs that allow for continuous enrollment and the length of time to complete the course is set by the learner's time, skill and commitment levels.

Paced courses may be offered in either synchronous mode, but self-paced courses are almost always offered asynchronously. Each delivery model offers both advantages and disadvantages for students, teachers, and institutions.

Kaplan and Haenlein classify distance education into four groups along the dimensions Time dependency and Number of participants:
  1. MOOCs (Massive Open Online Courses): Open-access online course (i.e., without specific participation restrictions) that allows for unlimited (massive) participation;
  2. SPOCs (Small Private Online Courses): Online course that only offers a limited number of places and therefore requires some form of formal enrollment;
  3. SMOCs (Synchronous Massive Online Courses): Open-access online course that allows for unlimited participation but requires students to be "present" at the same time (synchronously);
  4. SSOCs (Synchronous Private Online Courses): Online course that only offers a limited number of places and requires students to be "present" at the same time (synchronously).

Paced models are a familiar mode since they are used almost exclusively in campus-based schools. Institutes that offer both distance and campus programs usually use paced models so that teacher workload, student semester planning, tuition deadlines, exam schedules, and other administrative details can be synchronized with campus delivery.

Student familiarity and the pressure of deadlines encourages students to readily adapt to and usually succeed in paced models. However, student freedom is sacrificed as a common pace is often too fast for some students and too slow for others. In addition life events, professional or family responsibilities can interfere with a students capability to complete tasks to an external schedule. Finally, paced models allows students to readily form communities of inquiry and to engage in collaborative work.

Self-paced courses maximize student freedom, as not only can students commence studies on any date, but they can complete a course in as little time as a few weeks or up to a year or longer. Students often enroll in self-paced study when they are under pressure to complete programs, have not been able to complete a scheduled course, need additional courses or have pressure which precludes regular study for any length of time.

The self-paced nature of the programming, though, is an unfamiliar model for many students and can lead to excessive procrastination, resulting in course incompletion. Assessment of learning can also be challenging as exams can be written on any day, making it possible for students to share examination questions with resulting loss of academic integrity. Finally, it is extremely challenging to organize collaborative work activities, though some schools are developing cooperative models based upon networked and connectivist pedagogies for use in self-paced programs.

Benefits:

Distance learning can expand access to education and training for both general populace and businesses since its flexible scheduling structure lessens the effects of the many time-constraints imposed by personal responsibilities and commitments. Devolving some activities off-site alleviates institutional capacity constraints arising from the traditional demand on institutional buildings and infrastructure.

Furthermore, there is the potential for increased access to more experts in the field and to other students from diverse geographical, social, cultural, economic, and experiential backgrounds.

As the population at large becomes more involved in lifelong learning beyond the normal schooling age, institutions can benefit financially, and adult learning business courses may be particularly lucrative. Distance education programs can act as a catalyst for institutional innovation and are at least as effective as face-to-face learning programs, especially if the instructor is knowledgeable and skilled.

Distance education can also provide a broader method of communication within the realm of education. With the many tools and programs that technological advancements have to offer, communication appears to increase in distance education among students and their professors, as well as students and their classmates.

The distance educational increase in communication, particularly communication amongst students and their classmates, is an improvement that has been made to provide distance education students with as many of the opportunities as possible as they would receive in in-person education. The improvement being made in distance education is growing in tandem with the constant technological advancements.

Present-day online communication allows students to associate with accredited schools and programs throughout the world that are out of reach for in-person learning. By having the opportunity to be involved in global institutions via distance education, a diverse array of thought is presented to students through communication with their classmates.

This is beneficial because students have the opportunity to "combine new opinions with their own, and develop a solid foundation for learning". It has been shown through research that "as learners become aware of the variations in interpretation and construction of meaning among a range of people [they] construct an individual meaning", which can help students become knowledgeable of a wide array of viewpoints in education.

To increase the likelihood that students will build effective ties with one another during the course, instructors should use similar assignments for students across different locations to overcome the influence of co-location on relationship building.

The high cost of education affects students in higher education, to which distance education may be an alternative in order to provide some relief. Distance education has been a more cost-effective form of learning, and can sometimes save students a significant amount of money as opposed to traditional education. Distance education may be able to help to save students a considerable amount financially by removing the cost of transportation.

 In addition, distance education may be able to save students from the economic burden of high-priced course textbooks. Many textbooks are now available as electronic textbooks, known as e-textbooks, which can offer digital textbooks for a reduced price in comparison to traditional textbooks. Also, the increasing improvements in technology have resulted in many school libraries having a partnership with digital publishers that offer course materials for free, which can help students significantly with educational costs.

Within the class, students are able to learn in ways that traditional classrooms would not be able to provide. It is able to promote good learning experiences and therefore, allow students to obtain higher satisfaction with their online learning. For example, students can review their lessons more than once according to their need.

Students can then manipulate the coursework to fit their learning by focusing more on their weaker topics while breezing through concepts that they already have or can easily grasp. When course design and the learning environment are at their optimal conditions, distance education can lead students to higher satisfaction with their learning experiences.

Studies have shown that high satisfaction correlates to increased learning. For those in a healthcare or mental health distance learning program, online-based interactions have the potential to foster deeper reflections and discussions of client issues, as well as a quicker response to client issues, since supervision happens on a regular basis and is not limited to a weekly supervision meeting. This also may contribute to the students feeling a greater sense of support, since they have ongoing and regular access to their instructors and other students.

Distance learning may enable students who are unable to attend a traditional school setting, due to disability or illness such as decreased mobility and immune system suppression, to get a good education. Children who are sick or are unable to attend classes are able to attend them in "person" through the use of robot proxies.

This helps the students have experiences of the classroom and social interaction that they are unable to receive at home or the hospital, while still keeping them in a safe learning environment. Over the last few years more students are entering safely back into the classroom thanks to the help of robots.

An article from the New York Times, "A Swiveling Proxy Will Even Wear a Tutu", explains the positive impact of virtual learning in the classroom, and another that explains how even a simple, stationary telepresence robot can help. 

Distance education may provide equal access regardless of socioeconomic status or income, area of residence, gender, race, age, or cost per student. Applying universal design strategies to distance learning courses as they are being developed (rather than instituting accommodations for specific students on an as-needed basis) can increase the accessibility of such courses to students with a range of abilities, disabilities, learning styles, and native languages.

Distance education graduates, who would never have been associated with the school under a traditional system, may even donate money to the school!

Distance learning may also offer a final opportunity for adolescents that are no longer permitted in the general education population due to behavior disorders. Instead of these students having no other academic opportunities, they may continue their education from their homes and earn their diplomas, offering them another chance to be an integral part of society.

Distance learning offers individuals a unique opportunity to benefit from the expertise and resources of the best universities currently available. Students have the ability to collaborate, share, question, infer, and suggest new methods and techniques for continuous improvement of the content.

The ability to complete a course at a pace that is appropriate for each individual is the most effective manner to learn given the personal demands on time and schedule. Self-paced distance learning on a mobile device, such is a smartphone, provides maximum flexibility and capability.

Criticism:

Barriers to effective distance education include obstacles such as domestic distractions and unreliable technology, as well as students' program costs, adequate contact with teachers and support services, and a need for more experience.

Some students attempt to participate in distance education without proper training with the tools needed to be successful in the program. Students must be provided with training opportunities (if needed) on each tool that is used throughout the program.

The lack of advanced technology skills can lead to an unsuccessful experience. Schools have a responsibility to adopt a proactive policy for managing technology barriers. Time management skills and self-discipline in distance education is just as important as complete knowledge of the software and tools being used for learning.

The results of a study of Washington state community college students showed that distance learning students tended to drop out more often than their traditional counterparts due to difficulties in language, time management, and study skills.

According to Dr. Pankaj Singhm, director of Nims University, "distance learning benefits may outweigh the disadvantages for students in such a technology-driven society; however before indulging into use of educational technology a few more disadvantages should be considered." He describes that over multiple years, "all of the obstacles have been overcome and the world environment for distance education continues to improve."

Dr. Pankaj Singhm also claims there is a debate to distance education stating, "due to a lack of direct face-to-face social interaction. However, as more people become used to personal and social interaction online (for example dating, chat rooms, shopping, or blogging), it is becoming easier for learners to both project themselves and socialize with others. This is an obstacle that has dissipated."

Not all courses required to complete a degree may be offered online. Health care profession programs in particular, require some sort of patient interaction through field work before a student may graduate.

Studies have also shown that students pursuing a medical professional graduate degree who are participating in distance education courses, favor face to face communication over professor-mediated chat rooms and/or independent studies.

However, this is little correlation between student performance when comparing the previous different distance learning strategies.

There is a theoretical problem about the application of traditional teaching methods to online courses because online courses may have no upper size limit. Daniel Barwick noted that there is no evidence that large class size is always worse or that small class size is always better, although a negative link has been established between certain types of instruction in large classes and learning outcomes; he argued that higher education has not made a sufficient effort to experiment with a variety of instructional methods to determine whether large class size is always negatively correlated with a reduction in learning outcomes.

Early proponents of Massive Open Online Courses (MOOC)s saw them as just the type of experiment that Barwick had pointed out was lacking in higher education, although Barwick himself has never advocated for MOOCs.

There may also be institutional challenges. Distance learning is new enough that it may be a challenge to gain support for these programs in a traditional brick-and-mortar academic learning environment. Furthermore, it may be more difficult for the instructor to organize and plan a distance learning program, especially since many are new programs and their organizational needs are different from a traditional learning program.

Additionally, though distance education offers industrial countries the opportunity to become globally informed, there are still negative sides to it. Hellman states that "These include its cost and capital intensiveness, time constraints and other pressures on instructors, the isolation of students from instructors and their peers, instructors' enormous difficulty in adequately evaluating students they never meet face-to-face, and drop-out rates far higher than in classroom-based courses."

A more complex challenge of distance education relates to cultural differences between student and teachers and among students. Distance programmes tend to be more diverse as they could go beyond the geographical borders of regions, countries, and continents, and cross the cultural borders that may exist with respect to race, gender, and religion. That requires a proper understanding and awareness of the norms, differences, preconceptions and potential conflicting issues.

Educational technology:

The modern use of electronic educational technology (also called e-learning) facilitates distance learning and independent learning by the extensive use of information and communications technology (ICT), replacing traditional content delivery by postal correspondence.

Instruction can be synchronous and asynchronous online communication in an interactive learning environment or virtual communities, in lieu of a physical classroom. "The focus is shifted to the education transaction in the form of virtual community of learners sustainable across time."

One of the most significant issues encountered in the mainstream correspondence model of distance education is transactional distance, which results from the lack of appropriate communication between learner and teacher. This gap has been observed to become wider if there is no communication between the learner and teacher and has direct implications over the learning process and future endeavors in distance education.

Distance education providers began to introduce various strategies, techniques, and procedures to increase the amount of interaction between learner and teacher. These measures e.g. more frequent face-to-face tutorials, increased use of information and communication technologies including teleconferencing and the Internet, were designed to close the gap in transactional distance.

Credentials:
Main article: Online credentials for learning

Online credentials for learning are digital credentials that are offered in place of traditional paper credentials for a skill or educational achievement. Directly linked to the accelerated development of internet communication technologies, the development of digital badges, electronic passports and massive open online courses (MOOCs) have a very direct bearing on our understanding of learning, recognition and levels as they pose a direct challenge to the status quo. It is useful to distinguish between three forms of online credentials: Test-based credentials, online badges, and online certificates.

See also: ___________________________________________________________________________
Online Degree:

An online degree is an academic degree (usually a college degree, but sometimes the term includes high school diplomas and non-degree certificate programs) that can be earned primarily or entirely through the use of an Internet-connected computer, rather than attending college in a traditional campus setting.

Improvements in technology, the increasing use of the Internet worldwide, and the need for people to have flexible school schedules while they are working have led to a proliferation of online colleges that award associate, bachelor's, master's, and doctoral degrees.

​Accreditation:

The goal of educational accreditation, according to the United States Department of Education, is to ensure that programs provided by institutions of higher education meet acceptable levels of quality.

ENQA, the European Association for Quality Assurance in Higher Education, describes the role of external quality assurance in education as one that "combines both accountability for the reassurance of the public and an objective and developmental role for enhancing quality in institutions".

In the area of online education, it is important to avoid unaccredited diploma mills that offer fake degrees, as these are unfortunately common. Students seeking valid online degrees should obtain proof of accreditation from an appropriate national or regional accrediting body.

In the United States, online colleges that are fully accredited have earned a widely recognized form of university accreditation from either one of the six regional accreditation boards, one of the six national accreditation boards, or one of the four national faith-based accreditation boards. Each of six geographic regions of the United States has one regional accreditation board, a non-governmental agency that oversees and accredits degree-granting institutions headquartered in their areas.

Outside of the United States, other national and regional standards of accreditation hold, and may be highly supportive of, distance education. For example, the Universitat Oberta de Catalunya, or Open University of Catalonia, has been accredited by AQU, the Agency for Quality Assurance in the Catalan University System (a full member of ENQA), since its inception in 1995, and has been called a "significant success story" as "the world's first continuous, and sustainable, virtual university".

Similarly, in Ireland, the Higher Education and Training Awards Council (HETAC) has accredited a number of online colleges and degrees, e.g. Setanta College.

Quality:

Online education enables individuals living with physical disabilities, full-time employees, military personnel, those living abroad, and stay-at-home parents, among others to have access to accredited higher education.

The perception of the quality of online degrees compared to on-campus degrees varies, but has been increasing in recent years. While most major online colleges are regionally accredited, the public estimation of their quality is in dispute. A national survey of hiring representatives showed that a preference toward on-campus degrees exists. In some instances, hiring executives were unwilling to consider applicants with an online degree. 

Some experts argue that degrees in certain fields are more accepted online than in others, while some programs are less suited for online-only schools. A major issue for accredited and reputable online programs is the proliferation of proprietary online-only programs that have come under fire in recent years.

A survey by the Distance Education Accrediting Commission (DEAC) found that 100% of employers who responded felt that distance education program graduates performed better on the job as a result of their degree (as compared to their previous performance).

Additionally, employers felt that an employee receiving a distance education degree compared favorably, in terms of knowledge learned, to someone with a resident degree.

On the other hand, The Chronicle of Higher Education reported in January 2007 on a Vault Inc. survey that found 55 percent of employers preferred traditional degrees over online ones. Forty-one percent, however, said they would give "equal consideration to both types of degrees".

The Sloan Consortium, an organization funded by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation to maintain and improve the quality of distance education, publishes regular reports on the state of United States distance education. In its 2006 report "Making the Grade: Online Education in the United States, 2006", it stated that "in 2003, 57 percent of academic leaders rated the learning outcomes in online education as the same or superior to those in face-to-face. That number is now 62 percent, a small but noteworthy increase".

According to Steve Lohr's article in the New York Times, a major study was done in 2009 that was funded by the Education Department. The collected research was from a 12-year period and concluded that online learning on average beat face-to-face teaching by a small but statistical margin.

In many cases, an online degree earned through an accredited public or private university may be effectively indistinguishable from a degree earned in a campus-based program, sometimes referred to as "brick-and-mortar" programs. The instruction is often exactly the same, with the online degree containing no special designation. As such the same financial aid packages are often available to online students, which has helped make them more accessible to traditional applicants.

An example of an indistinguishable degree program is that offered by Columbia University. Student who earn a degree through the Columbia Video Network (CVN) earn exactly the same type of degree as the campus-based program. The professors, courses, homework, tests, and eventual transcripts and diploma are identical to that of on-campus students.

Another example is NYU Tandon Online which offers master's degrees completely online through New York University Tandon School of Engineering.

In recent years many top universities have been actively expanding their extension and online learning programs in an effort to legitimize the online education arena. While admissions to online programs at prestigious universities hasn't seen a dramatic spike, there has been a large expansion in course offerings in recent years.

Almost all Ivy League and top 20 universities now offer at least one online graduate degree program or certification.

Prevalence of online education:

The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) conducted a distance education study based on the 2001-2002 academic year at United States 2-year and 4-year degree-granting institutions that were eligible for U.S. federal student aid. The study reported that 56 percent of institutions surveyed offered distance education courses. The study also found that public institutions were more likely to offer distance education than private institutions were.

The Sloan Consortium, based on data collected from over 2,200 U.S. colleges and universities, reports that nearly 3.2 million students took at least one online course during 2005 (a significant increase over the 2.3 million reported in 2004).

According to the same report, about two-thirds of the largest institutions have fully online programs. In 2010, more than 6 million students were taking at least one course online. As of 2013, the number of students enrolled in online courses had risen to over 6.7 million.

According to Steve Lohr's article in the New York Times, a major study was done in 2009 that was funded by the Education Department. The collected research was from a 12-year period and concluded that online learning on average beat face-to-face teaching by a small but statistical margin.

Financial aid:

Until 2006, United States students enrolled in online degree programs were not eligible for federal student aid unless at least half of their programs were campus-based (a law established in 1992 and known as the 50-percent rule). In February 2006, that law was repealed, making federal student aid in the form of federal loans, grants, and work-study available in the U.S. for students enrolled in an eligible online degree program at an accredited Title IV-eligible institution.

See also:






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Degree Completion ProgramPictured below: Top 20 Fastest Online Degree Completion Programs
A degree completion program is an undergraduate academic program, most frequently found in the United States and Canada, that is offered within an established university but designed for non-traditional students.

Degree completion programs are typically structured to allow persons who previously completed a substantial portion of the requirements for an undergraduate degree, but who have been separated from the university setting for a period of time, to complete the credit requirements needed to earn a bachelor's degree (B.A.), either at an accelerated pace, or a flexible schedule.

The difference between credits previously earned, and those required for the award of a B.A., are made-up through a variety of methods depending on the sponsoring institution, but typically include a combination of traditional university courses and CLEP examinations.

Examples follow:
  • Georgetown University bills its degree completion program as designed for students who were "meaning to complete" their bachelor's degree, but for whom "life, work and other obligations got in the way". Applications are accepted from working adults who have completed one or two years of university courses which can be transferred onto the potential student's Georgetown transcript. A series of evening and weekend classes fills the gap between credits earned and those required for a bachelor's degree.
  • The degree completion program at the University of the Pacific is open to applicants who have completed 70-credits of university level course work. Once enrolled, students take a twice-weekly, evening class over the course of four semesters; those who successfully complete the 15-month instructional sequence are awarded a Bachelor of Arts in Liberal Studies.
  • Colorado State University offers a degree completion program in psychology. Students can transfer up to 90 credits of coursework taken at another university before completing the final 30 credits required for a B.A. degree through distance learning psychology courses at Colorado State.
  • University of San Francisco offers a Bachelor of Science in Management to working professionals who are interested in completing their degree. Students who have completed at least 60 semester credits may apply to the program and can earn their degree in as little as 23 months. Students take two courses each semester, and studies include accounting, finance, marketing, organizational behavior and theory, analytics, technology, logistics, and other core competencies.
  • University of Nebraska–Lincoln offers an online Bachelor of Science degree completion program in applied science. Students select from a broad range of courses across the College of Agriculture and Natural Resources, in addition to the credits they've already earned, to tailor a degree to their career goals. This program provides a convenient and flexible career path for those in the military, currently employed, returning to college or transferring from a two-year college.
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World-wide Rankings of Colleges and Universities Pictured below: Top 6 Universities and their Rankings, by Row (L-R)
(TOP): (1) Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT); (2) University Of Cambridge;
(CENTER): (3) Harvard University; (4) University College London (UCL);
(BOTTOM): (5) University of Oxford; (6) Imperial College London
College and university rankings are global rankings of institutions in higher education which have been ranked on the basis of various combinations of various factors. None of the rankings give a comprehensive overview of the strengths of the institutions ranked because all select a range of easily quantifiable characteristics to base their results on.

Rankings have most often been conducted by magazines, newspapers, websites, governments, or academics. In addition to ranking entire institutions, organizations perform rankings of specific programs, departments, and schools.

Various rankings consider combinations of measures of funding and endowment, research excellence and/or influence, specialization expertise, admissions, student options, award numbers, internationalization, graduate employment, industrial linkage, historical reputation and other criteria. Various rankings mostly evaluating on institutional output by research.

Some rankings evaluate institutions within a single country, while others assess institutions worldwide. The subject has produced much debate about rankings' usefulness and accuracy. The expanding diversity in rating methodologies and accompanying criticisms of each indicate the lack of consensus in the field.

Further, it seems possible to game the ranking systems through excessive self-citations or by researchers supporting each other in surveys. UNESCO has questioned whether rankings "do more harm than good", while acknowledging that "Rightly or wrongly, they are perceived as a measure of quality and so create intense competition between universities all over the world"

Click on any of the following blue hyperlinks for more about World-wide Rankings of Colleges and Universities:







Scholarship Programs in the United States, including a List of North American Scholarship ProgramsPictured below: Fulbright Foreign Student Scholarships Program In USA*
* - Click here for more about the Fullbright Program

Click here for a List of North American scholarships

Scholarships in the United States:

​A scholarship is defined as a grant or payment made to support a student's education, awarded on the basis of academic or other distinction. "Scholarship" has a different meaning in the United States than it does in other countries, with the partial exception of Canada.

Outside the U.S., scholarship is any type of monetary award to fund education.

In the United States, the only country with a national system that determines a student's financial need (see Expected Family Contribution), and where universities are far more expensive than in other countries, a scholarship is money for which the student must qualify in some way, and the term "grant" - an award the student receives because of financial need - is used for what in other countries are called scholarships.

Scholarships in the U.S. are awarded based upon various criteria, which usually reflect the values and purposes of the donor or founder of the award. Some scholarships for college are merit-based. Merit scholarships might be awarded based on academic achievement or on a combination of academics and a special talent, trait, or interest. Other scholarships are based on financial need.

Scholarship money is not required to be repaid. Scholarships are not a large component of college financial aid in the United States; they are far surpassed by grants, for which the only qualification is financial need, interest-free loans (while the student is in college), and subsidized campus employment. (See next topic below:"Student financial aid in the United States".)

A student who receives a scholarship may find other (need-based) financial aid reduced by the amount of the scholarship, so the net benefit of the scholarship to the student — especially the poor student — may be zero.

​Scholarships versus grants:

In the U.S., a grant is given on the basis of economic need, determined by the amount to which the college's Cost of Attendance (COA) exceeds the Expected Family Contribution (EFC), calculated by the U.S. Department of Education from information submitted on the Free Application for Federal Student Aid (FAFSA) following formulas set by the United States Congress.

(The federal EFC is sometimes modified, usually upwards, in awarding non-federal grants.) The federal Pell grant program is an entitlement: if the applicant meets the requirements - has economic Need (COA exceeds EFC), is studying at least half time towards a first undergraduate degree, is a U.S. citizen or eligible alien - the award of the money is automatic. The student has a right to it (is entitled).

In some cases obtaining scholarships does not help the student or her/his family. Scholarships reduce financial need, and the amount of the scholarship can cause need-based aid, which the student would have received anyway, to be reduced by the amount of the scholarship.

The English Access Microscholarship Program:

The English Access Microscholarship Program is an international project that was created by the U.S Department of State aimed at helping teens (13–20 years-old) from economically disadvantaged backgrounds to have better opportunities in employment, education, and life in general.

Access promotes skills and knowledge in the English language, as well as giving students the ability to compete and participate in future exchanges and study in the United States.

Each student receives 128 hours of instructions per year. It consists of 4 hours per week, for a total of 32 weeks, plus 72 hours of intensive two-week summer program each year. Approximately 95,000 students in more than 85 countries have participated in the Access Program since its founding in 2004.

The English Access Micro-Scholarship Program has reached out to other countries. The U.S. Embassy in Chisinau, Moldova has made available grants proposals from possible implementing partners for the 2017 – 2019 Access Program.

The purpose is to provide underprivileged young students opportunities to learn English and promote leadership skills by educating them regarding American culture. This program provides two years of English lessons or minimum of 180 hours of instruction annually.

In Algeria, the US Department of State launched the Program on February 2015 up to September 2018. The target is students from 13 to 20 years old from deprived sectors worldwide. World Learning will collaborate with eight schools in this country with 200 students participating in various programs for two years and receive 360 hours of instruction.
​







Student Loan, including Student Loans in the United States Pictured below: The map below shows where people are having the hardest time paying off student loans
A student loan is a type of loan designed to help students pay for post-secondary education and the associated fees, such as tuition, books and supplies, and living expenses. It may differ from other types of loans in the fact that the interest rate may be substantially lower and the repayment schedule may be deferred while the student is still in school.

It also differs in many countries in the strict laws regulating renegotiating and bankruptcy. This article highlights the differences of the student loan system in several major countries.

Click here for a Listing of Student Loans by Country.

Student loans in the United States:

​Student loans are a form of financial aid used to help students access higher education. Student loan debt in the United States has grown rapidly since 2006. The debt was ~$1.6 trillion in 2019 which was ~7.5% of 2019 GDP.

Loans usually must be repaid, in contrast to other forms of financial aid such as scholarships, which never have to be repaid, and grants, which rarely have to be repaid. Research indicates the increased usage of student loans has been a significant factor in college cost increases.

US leaders have acknowledged the rise in student loan debt as a crisis. Secretary of Education Betsy DeVos has noted that Federal Student Aid's portfolio "is nearly 10 percent of our nation's debt." Approximately 45 million people have student loan debt. 

In 2018, the average borrower owed $37,172 at the time of graduation, an increase of $20,000 from 2005. Student loan debt is unevenly distributed, and race and social class are significant factors in the distribution of student loans. Approximately 30 percent of all college students do not incur debt.

The schools with the highest amount of student loan debt are University of Phoenix, Walden University, Nova Southeastern University, Capella University, and Strayer University. Except for Nova Southeastern, they are all proprietary (profit-making) universities.

The default rate for borrowers who didn't complete their degree is three times as high as the rate for those who did. Student loan defaults are disproportionately concentrated in the for-profit college sector. 

In 2018, the National Center for Education Statistics reported that the 12-year student loan default rate for for-profit colleges was 52 percent. The 12-year student loan default rate for African Americans going to for-profit colleges was reported to be 65.7 percent.

A 2018 Brookings Institution study projected that "nearly 40 percent of students who took out loans in 2004 may default by 2023."

Click on any of the following blue hyperlinks for more about Student Loan Debt in the United States:







Online Higher Education, including a
List of Online Colleges in the United StatesPictured: Logos for (L) University of Phoenix; (R) Southern New Hampshire University
Click here for a List of Online Colleges within the United States.

Click here for a List of online colleges who are accredited by the U.S.Department of Education*
​* -- U. S. Department of Education

Online Education involves courses offered by postsecondary institutions that are 100% virtual, excluding massively open online courses (MOOCs).

In the domain of higher education there are two distinct methods in which a learner can engage with an academic institution; the traditional method of brick-and-mortar facilities and the virtual method through online learning.

This article will focus on the virtual platform of online learning. Today's online learning is the newest development in distance education that began in the mid-1990s with the spread of the internet.

Learner experience is typically asynchronous, but may also incorporate synchronous elements. The vast majority of institutions utilize a Learning Management System for the administration of online courses. As theories of distance education evolve, digital technologies to support learning and pedagogy continue to transform as well.

Click on any of the following blue hyperlinks for more about Online Education:






​
United States Department of EducationPictured below: Today, @BetsyDeVosED joined @VP and the @WhiteHouse
Coronavirus Task Force at ED to further discuss how American educators and community health leaders can work together to safely reopen schools this fall.
The United States Department of Education (ED or DoED), also referred to as the ED for (the) Education Department, is a Cabinet-level department of the United States government.

It began operating on May 4, 1980, having been created after the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare was split into the Department of Education and the Department of Health and Human Services by the Department of Education Organization Act, which President Jimmy Carter signed into law on October 17, 1979.

The Department of Education is administered by the United States secretary of education. It has under 4,000 employees (2018) and an annual budget of $68 billion (2016). The 2019 Budget also supports $129.8 billion in new postsecondary grants, loans, and work-study assistance to help an estimated 11.5 million students and their families pay for college. Its official abbreviation is "ED" ("DOE" refers to the United States Department of Energy) and is also often abbreviated informally as "DoEd".

Functions:

The primary functions of the Department of Education are to "establish policy for, administer and coordinate most federal assistance to education, collect data on US schools, and to enforce federal educational laws regarding privacy and civil rights. The Department of Education does not establish schools or colleges.

Unlike the systems of most other countries, education in the United States is highly decentralized, and the federal government and Department of Education are not heavily involved in determining curricula or educational standards (with the exception of the No Child Left Behind Act). This has been left to state and local school districts. The quality of educational institutions and their degrees is maintained through an informal private process known as accreditation, over which the Department of Education has no direct public jurisdictional control.

The Department of Education is a member of the United States Interagency Council on Homelessness, and works with federal partners to ensure proper education for homeless and runaway youth in the United States.

Opposition to the Department of Education mainly stems from conservatives, who see the department as an undermining of states rights, and libertarians who believe it results in a state-imposed leveling towards the bottom and low value for taxpayers' money.

Click  on any of the following blue hyperlinks for more about the United States Department of Education:







Learning Management Systems (LM) including a Comparison of Learning Management Systems Software Pictured below: What is a Learning Management System (LMS)? by Mintbook*
Learning management system* -- Continued here: ​courtesy of Mintbook.com:

The lockdowns and shutdowns caused by the COVID-19 compel schools, colleges, universities, and other educational institutions to revamp conventional education systems and learning models. Some educational institutions facilitate digital learning by leveraging existing digital platforms and applications, while others use customized learning management systems. 

Contents, courtesy of Mintbook.com:

What is a Learning Management System (LMS)?
What are the Key Features and Functions of an LMS System? What are the Different Use Cases of an LMS?
Conclusion

Unlike popular digital platforms and applications, learning management systems enable educational institutions to deliver training programs and educational courses in their own way. At the same time, businesses and enterprises from various industries also use the learning management system to train, upskill, and reskill employees by planning and implementing elaborate training programs. 

What is a Learning Management System (LMS)? As its name suggests, a learning management system (LMS) is a web-based system or software. The administrators and learners can access the software over the internet using a variety of devices – computers, smartphones, and tablets.

The web-based software or system is designed with features to facilitate the delivery of training programs and education programs in a digital environment. 

At the same time, an LMS system also comes with features to simplify the management of creation, delivery, and management of educational content or training materials. Most learning management software these days deliver educational content in a variety of digital formats – eBooks, audiobooks, videos, quizzes, and simulations. 

Also, they allow administrators to assign courses to students, monitor their progress, and assess their knowledge using a single interface. The sophisticated learning management systems eliminate the need for the creation of fresh content by allowing access to a wide variety of digital libraries. That is why; both educational institutions and businesses invest in an LMS to automate important aspects of online learning or digital training management. 

What are the Key Features and Functions of an LMS System? Responsive Design:

Most learners these days access learning management systems on their mobile devices. The vendors make the same LMS look good on both computers and mobile devices by adopting responsive design.

Many vendors even optimize the LMS for smartphones and tablets by improving their mobile experience. Hence, organizations should opt for an LMS that learners can access anytime and anywhere using their choice of device. However, they need to ensure that the digital libraries integrated into the LMS are also optimized for mobile devices. 

Multilingual Support An organization can use the same LMS to deliver online training to learners across geographic locations. Many learning management systems these days support multiple languages. Some learning management software even comes with digital libraries consisting of the content in many languages. Multilingual support is essential for businesses to train employees, customers, dealers, and franchisees by creating training programs in multiple languages. 

Intuitive User Interface Most users these days abandon slow websites and complex mobile apps. Organizations need learning management systems that learners can access without putting in extra time and effort. In addition to being compatible with mobile devices, the LMS must be easier to access and use. The intuitive user interface will persuade learners to acquire knowledge and complete the course. Organizations can easily evaluate the user interface by asking for a free trial. 

Learning Model Integration There was a time when the learning management systems were supporting only the online learning model. But the new-age learning management systems support online, offline, and instructor-led training models. The integration of multiple learning models helps learners to read the educational content at their own convenience, along with being guided by instructors. Many learners clear their doubts by interacting with the instructors after learning the digital content on their own. 

Digital Library The sophisticated learning management systems come with a cloud-based digital library integration option. The digital libraries provided by the LMS vendors help users to create courses and training programs without creating the content. The leading vendors allow customers to choose from several digital libraries containing SCORM-compatible content in multiple languages. Also, each of the libraries consists of a variety of digital content – eBooks, audiobooks, videos, and simulations. 

Gamification Features Like mobile apps, sophisticated learning management systems keep learners engaged by providing LMS gamification features. The gamification features keep learners engaged and encourage them to complete the course by transforming online learning into a friendly competition. The learners feel excited and motivated when they can earn points, badges, leaderboards, and similar rewards by completing online courses. 

Learning Assessment Options In addition to keeping learners engaged and motivated, the learning management systems are designed with eLearning assessment tools and options. The LMS makes assessment an integral part of online courses and eLearning. Some learning management systems even allow users to customize assessment options by providing templates and tools. The users can use the templates to assess the skill and knowledge of the learner by combining pre-tests and post-tests. 

Reports and Analytics The LMS helps administrators to track the activities of both teachers and learners by generating reports dynamically based on real-time data. The administrator can use the built-in features provided by the LMS to create a variety of reports – learning item reports, learning path reports, and examination reports – on demand. The administrators can further generate reports to assess the critical aspects of individual courses and training programs. The sophisticated learning management systems use analytics to help administrators achieve training goals by optimizing the performance of training programs. 

Data Security When an organization integrates conventional and digital learning models, it must focus extensively on optimizing data security. Many learning management systems these days restrict access by providing a variety of authentication and authorization options. Also, the vendors monitor the security of the LMS continuously to combat security threats. However, the organization must explore ways to strengthen data security by customizing the security features provided by the LMS. 

24/7 Technical Support No organization can make training programs successful without making the LMS available and accessible to learners 24 hours a day. The availability and accessibility of the LMS are often impacted by a variety of technical issues. The leading vendors these days provide 24/7 technical support to the clients. Also, they allow clients to communicate through multiple channels – telephone, emails, text messages, and instant messages. Also, they deliver free communication by setting up toll-free numbers. 

What are the Different Use Cases of an LMS? At present, both educational institutions and business enterprises use learning management systems. The educational institutions use an LMS primary to facilitate the delivery and management of educational courses. On the other hand, business enterprises use LMS to facilitate employee training, upskilling and reskilling. That is why; the use cases of an LMS differ according to an organization’s precise training needs and goals. 

Flipped Classrooms Many educational institutions use an LMS to switch from conventional classrooms to flipped classrooms. The flipped classrooms enable students to learn at their own pace and convenience. The sophisticated learning management systems help schools and colleges to set up flipped classrooms by combining online, offline, and instructor-led training. The learning management students help educational institutions to keep their students safe in the post-pandemic world. 

Employee Orientation Each company must train new employees early and adequately. The learning management systems help companies to train new employees by assigning specific courses. A company can further design onboarding courses to provide the new employee with the information required to understand the organization’s work culture and her role. The LMS further helps managers to ensure that the new employee completes the onboarding course successfully. 

Employee Training Each organization these days implements new training programs to train new employees and upskill existing employees. Also, the learning management systems for employee training help businesses to enable employees to learn at their own pace. As the employees can access the LMS on their mobile devices, they can learn after working hours. The learning management systems help businesses to curtail employee training costs and minimize business interruptions. 

Compliance Training Some companies update their compliance strategies frequently to comply with the latest rules and guidelines. They need to ensure that each employee understands the latest compliance protocols and adheres to the guidelines. The LMS systems for compliance training make it easier for businesses to make each employee know the latest compliance guidelines. The businesses can further use the data tracked by the LMS during compliance audits. 

Channel Training In addition to training the internal sales team, the enterprises these days need to train the dealers and franchisees to boost sales. The LMS for channel training helps businesses to train an external member of the sales channel by planning customized courses. The courses help dealers and franchisees to collect product information as well as company policies regardless of their geographic location. 

Knowledge Retention Many enterprises these days plan training programs to train and upskill employees. They explore ways to retain the knowledge and content within the organization. Also, the learning management systems ensure that an employee cannot download the content and access the materials using any external interface. Hence, the enterprises leverage LMS to use the same information to train new employees when existing employees leave or retire. 

Training Service Providers Many enterprises these days outsource employee training or internal training to third parties to overcome constraints related to skills and resources. The training service providers use an LMS to plan a variety of training programs for clients and manage the training programs efficiently. They further leverage the authorization and authentication options provided by the LMS to ensure that the content and interface are authorized only by genuine learners. 

Conclusion The learning management systems differ from each other in several aspects, including features, accessibility, usability, content, and security. Also, each organization must choose an LMS that complements its precise training needs and strategies. Some of the learning management systems are designed with features to complement the varied training needs of educational institutions and businesses. 

The LMS software developed by Mintbook aims to meet the training needs of different organizations by combining online, offline, and instructor-led learning models. Many educational institutes and enterprises already use the LMS as an end-to-end digital learning platform to train employees from various departments or teams. 

Also, Mintbook allows users to integrate the LMS seamlessly with over 1500 digital libraries consisting of a variety of digital learning materials – eBooks, magazines, journals, audiobooks, videos, quizzes, and simulations. Digital libraries help enterprises to implement training programs without putting in extra time and effort. 

Tagged:
What is an LMS, 
What is LMS Software
Mintbook  [email protected]
___________________________________________________________________________

​Learning management system: by Wikipedia

A learning management system (LMS) is a software application for the administration, documentation, tracking, reporting, automation, and delivery of educational courses, training programs, or learning and development programs.

The learning management system concept emerged directly from e-Learning. Learning management systems make up the largest segment of the learning system market. The first introduction of the LMS was in the late 1990s. Learning management systems have faced a massive growth in usage due to the emphasis on remote learning during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Learning management systems were designed to identify training and learning gaps, using analytical data and reporting. LMSs are focused on online learning delivery but support a range of uses, acting as a platform for online content, including courses, both asynchronous based and synchronous based.

In the higher education space, an LMS may offer classroom management for instructor-led training or a flipped classroom. Modern LMSs include intelligent algorithms to make automated recommendations for courses based on a user's skill profile as well as extract metadata from learning materials to make such recommendations even more accurate.

​Characteristics:

Purpose:

An LMS delivers and manages all types of content, including video, courses, and documents. In the education and higher education markets, an LMS will include a variety of functionality that is similar to corporate but will have features such as rubrics, teacher and instructor-facilitated learning, a discussion board, and often the use of a syllabus. A syllabus is rarely a feature in the corporate LMS, although courses may start with heading-level index to give learners an overview of topics covered.

History:

There are several historical phases of distance education that preceded the development of the LMS:

Correspondence teaching:

The first known document of correspondence teaching dates back to 1723, through the advertisement in the Boston Gazette of Caleb Phillips, professor of shorthand, offering teaching materials and tutorials. 

The first testimony of a bi-directional communication organized correspondence course comes from England, in 1840, when Isaac Pitman initiated a shorthand course, wherein he sent a passage of the Bible to students, who would send it back in full transcription. The success of the course resulted in the foundation of the phonographic correspondence society in 1843.

The pioneering milestone in distance language teaching was in 1856 by Charles Toussaint and Gustav Langenscheidt, who began the first European institution of distance learning. This is the first known instance of the use of materials for independent language study.

Multimedia teaching: The emergence and development of the distance learning idea

The concept of e-learning began developing in the early 20th century, marked by the appearance of audio-video communication systems used for remote teaching. In 1909, E.M. Forster published his story 'The Machine Stops' and explained the benefits of using audio communication to deliver lectures to remote audiences.

In 1924, Sidney L. Pressey developed the first teaching machine which offered multiple types of practical exercises and question formats. Nine years later, University of Alberta's Professor M.E. Zerte transformed this machine into a problem cylinder able to compare problems and solutions.

This, in a sense, was "multimedia", because it made use of several media formats to reach students and provide instruction. Later, printed materials would be joined by telephone, radio broadcasts, TV broadcasts, audio, and videotapes.

The earliest networked learning system was the Plato Learning Management system (PLM) developed in the 1970s by Control Data Corporation.

Telematic teaching:

In the 1980s, modern telecommunications started to be used in education. Computers became prominent in the daily use of higher education institutions, as well as instruments to student learning. Computer aided teaching aimed to integrate technical and educational means. The trend then shifted to video communication, as a result of which Houston University decided to hold telecast classes to their students for approximately 13–15 hours a week.

The classes took place in 1953, while in 1956, Robin McKinnon Wood and Gordon Pask released the first adaptive teaching system for corporate environments SAKI. The idea of automating teaching operations also inspired the University of Illinois experts to develop their Programmed Logic for Automated Teaching Operations (PLATO) which enabled users to exchange content regardless of their location. 

In the period between 1970 and 1980, educational venues were rapidly considering the idea of computerizing courses, including the Western Behavioral Sciences Institute from California that introduced the first accredited online-taught degree.

Teaching through the internet: The appearance of the first LMS:

The history of the application of computers to education is filled with broadly descriptive terms such as computer-managed instruction (CMI), and integrated learning systems (ILS), computer-based instruction (CBI), computer-assisted instruction (CAI), and computer-assisted learning (CAL).

These terms describe drill-and-practice programs, more sophisticated tutorials, and more individualized instruction, respectively. The term is currently used to describe a number of different educational computer applications. FirstClass by SoftArc, used by the United Kingdom's Open University in the 1990s and 2000s to deliver online learning across Europe, was one of the earliest internet-based LMSs.

The first fully-featured Learning Management System (LMS) was called EKKO, developed and released by Norway's NKI Distance Education Network in 1991.

Three years later, New Brunswick's NB Learning Network presented a similar system designed for DOS-based teaching, and devoted exclusively to business learners.

Technical aspects:

An LMS can be either hosted locally or by a vendor. A vendor-hosted cloud system tends to follow a SaaS (software as a service) model. All data in a vendor-hosted system is housed by the supplier and accessed by users through the internet, on a computer or mobile device.

Vendor-hosted systems are typically easier to use and require less technical expertise. An LMS that is locally hosted sees all data pertaining to the LMS hosted internally on the users′ internal servers.

Locally hosted LMS software will often be open-source, meaning users will acquire (either through payment or free of charge) the LMS software and its code. With this, the user is able to modify and maintain the software through an internal team. Individuals and smaller organizations tend to stick with cloud-based systems due to the cost of internal hosting and maintenance.

There are a variety of integration strategies for embedding content into LMSs, including AICC, xAPI (also called 'Tin Can'), SCORM (Sharable Content Object Reference Model) and LTI (Learning Tools Interoperability).

Through an LMS, teachers may create and integrate course materials, articulate learning goals, align content and assessments, track studying progress, and create customized tests for students. An LMS allows the communication of learning objectives, and organize learning timelines. An LMS perk is that it delivers learning content and tools straight to learners, and assessment can be automated. It can also reach marginalized groups through special settings.

Such systems have built-in customizable features including assessment and tracking. Thus, learners can see in real time their progress and instructors can monitor and communicate the effectiveness of learning. 

One of the most important features of LMS is trying to create a streamline communication between learners and instructors. Such systems, besides facilitating online learning, tracking learning progress, providing digital learning tools, managing communication, and maybe selling content, may be used to provide different communication features.

Features:

Managing courses, users and roles:

Learning management systems may be used to create professionally structured course content. The teacher can add, text, images, videos, pdfs, tables, links and text formatting, interactive tests, slideshows etc. Moreover, they can create different types of users, such as teachers, students, parents, visitors and editors (hierarchies). It helps control which content a student can access, track studying progress and engage student with contact tools.

Teachers can manage courses and modules, enroll students or set up self-enrollment.

Online assessment:

An LMS can enable instructors to create automated assessments and assignments for learners, which are accessible and submitted online. Most platforms allow a variety of different question types such as: one/multi-line answer; multiple choice answer; ordering; free text; matching; essay; true or false/yes or no; fill in the gaps; agreement scale and offline tasks.

User feedback:

Students' exchange of feedback both with teachers and their peers is possible through LMS. Teachers may create discussion groups to allow students feedback, share their knowledge on topics and increase the interaction in course. Students' feedback is an instrument which help teachers to improve their work, helps identify what to add or remove from a course, and ensures students feel comfortable and included.

Synchronous and Asynchronous Learning:

Students can either learn asynchronously (on demand, self-paced) through course content such as pre-recorded videos, PDF, SCORM (Sharable Content Object Reference Model) or they can undertake synchronous learning through mediums such as Webinars.

Learning Analytics:

Learning management systems will often incorporate dashboards to track student or user progress. They can then report on key items such as completion rates, attendance data and success likelihood. Utilizing these metrics can help facilitators better understand gaps in user knowledge.

Learning management industry:

In the relatively new LMS market, commercial providers for corporate applications and education range from new entrants to those that entered the market in the 1990. In addition to commercial packages, many open source solutions are available.

In the U.S. higher education market as of spring 2021, the top three LMSs by number of institutions were Canvas (38%), Blackboard (25%), and Moodle (15%). Worldwide, the picture was different, with Moodle having over 50% of market share in Europe, Latin America, and Oceania.

Many users of LMSs use an authoring tool to create content, which is then hosted on an LMS. In some cases, LMSs that do use a standard include a primitive authoring tool for basic content manipulation.

More modern systems, in particular SaaS solutions have decided not to adopt a standard and have rich course authoring tools. There are several standards for creating and integrating complex content into an LMS, including AICC, SCORM, xAPI and Learning Tools Interoperability. However, using SCORM or an alternative standardized course protocol is not always required and can be restrictive when used unnecessarily.

Evaluation of LMSs is a complex task and significant research supports different forms of evaluation, including iterative processes where students' experiences and approaches to learning are evaluated.

Advantages and disadvantages:

Advantages:

There are six major advantages of LMS: interoperability, accessibility, reusability, durability, maintenance ability and adaptability, which in themselves constitute the concept of LMS.

Disadvantages:
  • Teachers have to be willing to adapt their curricula from face-to-face lectures to online lectures. There is the potential for instructors to try to directly translate existing support materials into courses which can result in very low interactivity and engagement for learners if not done well.

​COVID-19 and Learning Management Systems:

The suspension of in-school learning caused by the COVID-19 pandemic started a dramatic shift in the way teachers and students at all levels interact with each other and learning materials. UNESCO estimated that as of May 25, 2020, approximately 990,324,537 learners, or  56.6% of the total enrolled students have been affected by COVID-19 related school closures. 

In many countries, online education through the use of Learning Management Systems became the focal point of teaching and learning. For example, statistics taken from a university’s LMS during the initial school closure period (March to June 2020) indicate that student submissions and activity nearly doubled from pre-pandemic usage levels.

Student satisfaction with LMS usage during this period is closely tied to the information quality contained within LMS modules and maintaining student self-efficacy. From the teacher perspective, a study of K-12 teachers in Finland reported high levels of acceptance for LMS technology, however, training support and developing methods for maintaining student engagement are key to long-term success. 

In developing nations, the transition to LMS usage faced many challenges, which included a lower number of colleges and universities using LMSs before the pandemic, technological infrastructure limitations, and negative attitudes toward technology amongst users.

See also: ___________________________________________________________________________

Using Capterra to compare product features and ratings to find the Learning Management Systems Software for your organization:

The following chart is an image only: to be able to hyperlink for additional information about these products, click here.

Capterra: Find the best LMS Software for your business or school. Compare product reviews and features, and learn from our LMS Software Research.








Computers in the ClassroomPictured below: Can computers enhance the work of teachers? The debate is on
Computers in the classroom include any digital technology used to enhance, supplement, or replace a traditional educational curriculum with computer science education.

As computers have become more accessible, inexpensive, and powerful, the demand for this technology has increased, leading to more frequent use of computer resources within classes, and a decrease in the student-to-computer ratio within schools.

History:

Origins:

College campuses used computer mainframes in education since the initial days of this technology, and throughout the initial development of computers.

The earliest large-scale study of educational computer usage conducted for the National Science Foundation by The American Institute for Research concluded that 13% of the nation's public high schools used computers for instruction, although non-users still outnumbered users at a ratio of 2 to 1.

The study also concluded that computers proved to be very popular with students, and that applications run on early models included sports statistic managers, administration tools, and physics simulators.

In 1975, Apple Inc. began donating Apple 1 model computers to schools, and mainframes began to lose their former dominance over academic research. Computer usage continued to grow rapidly throughout this era.

In 1977, it was estimated that over 90% of students at Dartmouth College had used computers at some point in their college careers. Walter Koetke, the director of a Lexington, Massachusetts school system commented that, "It's still possible for a student to get through here without using the computer, but he would certainly have to try to do it". 

In 1983, Drexel University became the first campus to require every student to purchase a laptop.

Computer-aided instruction gained widespread acceptance in schools by the early 1980s. It was during this period that drilling and practice programs were first developed for exclusive classroom use.

Schools became divided over which computer manufacturers they were willing to support, with grade schools generally using Apple computers and high schools preferring DOS based machines. Hardware shortages in schools became a major issue, leaving many teachers unable to provide enough computers for students to use. 

​Despite this, by 1989 computer usage shifted from being a relative rarity in American public schools, to being present in nearly every school district.

Modern Era:

​The early 1990s marked the beginning of modern media technology such as CD-ROMs as well as the development of modern presentation software such as Microsoft PowerPoint. 

Other computer-based technology including the electronic whiteboard and the laptop computer became widely available to students. Internet technologies were also gaining prevalence in schools. In 1996, Bill Clinton made over $2 billion in grants available in the Technology Literacy Challenge Fund, a program which challenged schools to make computers and the Internet available to every student, connected to the outside world, and engaging. This marked a significant increase in the demand for computer technology in many public school systems throughout the globe.

Correlating with the development of modern operating systems like Windows 98 and the continuing support of government funding, the prevalence of educational computer usage boomed during this era. Between 1997 and 1999, the ratio of students to multimedia computers decreased from 21 students per machine to less than 10 students per machine.

Colleges began creating specialized classrooms designed to provide students with access to the utilization of the most modern technology available. Classrooms such as the "Classroom 2000" built at Georgia Tech in 1999 which featured computers with audio and video equipment designed to capture detailed recordings of lectures as a replacement for traditional note taking began to become more common.

By 2000, the student to computer ratio at some schools in the US decreased to only 1 student per school computer.

As collaborative classroom environments became mainstream, more schools as a whole began to invest in powerful networks and faster Internet connections. By 2010, many school districts implemented or encouraged "1:1 learning programs" which would ensure that all students in grade school would be provided with a personal laptop. 

Computers have significantly changed traditional teaching methodology into a more "hands-on" approach, with Forbes predicting that, "Instead of parking themselves in a lecture hall for hours, students will work in collaborative spaces, where future doctors, lawyers, business leaders, engineers, journalists and artists learn to integrate their different approaches to problem solving and innovate together."

Experience has shown, however, that excessive use of computers can be detrimental to a student's basic academic skills. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development has compared average student literacy, numeracy and science skills in 31 countries (considering three large cities in China separately). It also compared the levels of student computer use in those same countries.

The study's conclusion, after correcting for social backgrounds and student demographics, was that moderate use of classroom computers produces the best educational outcomes.

21st century:

Demands:

The shift in worldwide computer usage and the need for computer skills in today's workforce have pushed the United States government to create guidelines for educators to ensure that students are prepared to meet the demands of the 21st century. The Core Curriculum Content Standards for education are aimed at preparing students with such skills demanded of those entering the 21st century learning environment as well as the 21st century and work environment.

Changes such as this, along with the changes in the ways that 21st century learners communicate, have impacted the ways that classroom computers are utilized. Currently, teachers are tapping into the enhanced abilities of current classroom computer technology by utilizing various Web 2.0 tools to enhance their instruction. Such tools are also being used to extend classroom communication outside of the campus through online collaborative tools.

Centered primarily on collaboration and sharing, Web 2.0 computer applications encourage student self-expression; interaction with peers, and opportunity for authentic learning experiences. Through the implementation and integration of Web 2.0 computer technologies into the classroom setting, authentic and meaningful learning experiences are now able to occur in ways that have been previously unimaginable.

Currently, the learning that is taking place is not simply about typical concepts or facts as laid out in school curricula. Instead, it is about the process of building connections[14] As a result, the awareness of the importance and the value of communication is becoming instilled into children.

Today, with a single laptop, Webcam, projector, and an Internet connection, a teacher can broadcast and begin collaboration with any other classroom. As groups of learners coalesce around shared passions online, they experience something that is difficult to replicate in physical space.

Applications:

Classroom computer access to Web 2.0 applications such as online learning communities and interactive educational tools offer a more dynamic learning experience, with direct benefits to students. Web 2.0 technologies that are being utilized within the classroom have made it possible for essential learning to be introduced to students during their elementary levels of education and to be refined through their middle, high school and collegiate experiences.

As classroom computer technology is being used for different types of communication—for presentation, for class interaction, and for collaboration, students are required to be readers and writers, editors and publishers; and must be willing to collaborate and co-create with others, working closely together to learn even more in the process. 

Web 2.0 Interaction involves not only sharing ideas or information with someone else, but also receiving feedback. The collaboration engages groups of people in not only sending and receiving feedback but working together for creating, building, and editing, These skills are a necessity for students' futures as they grow and enter the workplace.

The goal of using such computer applications is to increase peer-to-peer interactions through digital means, in order to replicate real-life 21st century communication skills. One such technology that has gained significant recognition within K-12 education is the Weblog.

Weblogs, or blogs, are frequently accessed on classroom computers due to their positive effects upon students. These online journals are primarily used to support communication in the form of presentation, and they provide a useful tool for class interaction. Weblogs allow students to present their own findings and discoveries to an authentic audience.

Receiving feedback about course work not just from your teacher but from your peers, or possibly from the outside world, can be very empowering to students. In their eyes, having the ability to publish their writing on a blog suddenly transforms them into authors and publishers. 

Blogs make students are of careful and conscientious writing. Students are no longer writing for an audience of one. Instead, their words face an audience of their peers as well as countless others whose primary goal is not only to read, but also to provide commentary, feedback and even to critique and criticize their words. By using classroom computers for such means, students become increasingly more cautious and aware of their grammar, spelling and word-choice knowing that they are the authors of a published piece of writing that will reach a wide audience.

Similarly, Wikis are commonly accessed on classroom computers due to their positive impacts. The collaborative environment that wikis facilitate can teach students much about how to work with others, how to create community, and how to operate in a world where the creation of knowledge and information is increasingly becoming a group effort. 

The implementations and uses of wikis range:
  • from the development of group-based writing projects,
  • to collaborative note taking,
  • to brainstorming.

Teachers can set up wikis for groups of students, giving them the opportunity to all join in on equal footing to give feedback, to make suggestions and changes, and to jot down ideas. With a wiki, everyone is an author of the wiki at the same time. 

For example, "Teaching with Technology" is an annual survey that asks teachers about technology in the classroom. Survey findings found it was found that 38.37% of teachers said that technology has had an extremely positive impact on education and 36.63% said that technology has mostly had a positive impact on education.

Additionally, Wikis afford students the opportunity to express themselves using multiple modalities. Therefore, children who struggle to express themselves through the written word, are now at ease due to ability to insert music, graphics, video, and photos into their writing.

With the help of this technology, students who struggle with language are now able to create multimodal compositions, allowing them to communicate meanings that were once inaccessible or not fully expressed through their printed word. 

These ongoing collaborative efforts also reinforce the notion of careful, contentious writing. Students' words are no longer for an audience of one, but instead for an audience of countless individuals. The awareness of this global reach reminds students to be cautious with grammar, word choice and style as they know that others will be expanding upon their written ideas.

Because of their versatility, Podcasts are also commonly accessed on classroom computers.

These downloadable, portable files allow listeners to subscribe to digitally recorded audio clips and replay them at their own convenience. Similarly, the use of Vodcasts has become almost as common, as they allow for students to view digitally recorded video on classroom computers.

Accessing Podcasts and Vodcasts on classroom computers allows for differentiated instruction within the classroom environment. These technologies provide students with the opportunity to learn at their own pace and the freedom to go back whenever possible and as frequently as necessary in order to check their understanding.

Podcasts are offering ESL students, and those with learning disabilities, the chance to review lectures at their own pace for increased comprehension. In fact, research was conducted to see how technology could help the visually impaired in the classroom. It showed that the visually impaired students found technology is better for them, compared to the regular paper. This demonstrated that they can learn for themselves in a classroom.

In this case, the iPad2, helped increase the reading speed of those visually impaired compared to the large printed text on paper. Many ELL and ESL students need additional support with defining commonly used language as well as with the pronunciation of new vocabulary. Other students, such as those with special needs have difficulty reading and reviewing complex texts.

Accessing Podcasts and Vodcasts on classroom computers can easily provide helpful tools to address these students' needs.

Ineffective use:

Intrinsic barriers such as a belief in more traditional teaching practices and individual attitudes towards computers in education as well as the teachers own comfort with computers and their ability to use them all result in varying effectiveness in the integration of computers in the classroom.

Even with the increased access to computers within education systems the actual use of computers in the class room lacks meaningful activities that involve the students.

Teachers also appear to abandon the intended educational uses of the computers purely for communication between staff and parents as well as preparation of more traditional learning materials. A survey collected data from 306 in-service teachers from eight secondary schools.

​One concept that was found in the research was that for the individual category, which included personal skills and feelings, saw that anxiety and computer self-efficiency had an impact on the teachers ability to teach. Through different organizational skill sets, technology could either be stressful and negative or reinforcing and positive for teachers.









One-to-One Computing See below image for Slide Show images #1 through #6:
​Click on #1 through #6 of above Slides as:
  1. Slide #1: ​Computing Jobs are the #1 source of new wages in U.S.
  2. Slide #2: The STEM problem is in computer science
  3. Slide #3: The value of a computer science education
  4. Slide #4: Tech's diversity problem is also in CS
  5. Slide #5:  students enjoy computer science and the arts the most
  6. Slide #6: Code WizardsHQ, Summer Coding Program 1-Week Camps & 3-Week Classes​
In the context of education, one-to-one computing (sometimes abbreviated as "1:1") refers to academic institutions, such as schools or colleges, that allow each enrolled student to use an electronic device in order to access the Internet, digital course materials, and digital textbooks. 

The concept has been actively explored and sporadically implemented since the late 1990s. One-to-one computing used to be contrasted with a policy of "bring your own device" (BYOD), which encourages or requires students to use their own laptops, smartphones or other electronic devices in class.

The distinction between BYOD and school-issued devices became blurred when many schools started recommending devices for parents to buy (examples for both iPads and Chromebooks being used 1:1 in schools, but being paid for by parents exist, there may be similar evidence for other devices).

The term 1:1 computing in education is now redefined to a situation where students have access to a device per individual that is used in the teaching as a tool for learning.

Historically, the programs have centered around the following devices:
  • Laptops (Windows and Mac) 1990s-2010.
  • iPads (with some competing Android and Windows devices) 2010-2014
  • Chromebooks (2015–present) (with iPad+keyboard and other laptop & tablet-computers competing).

​Levels:

The level of education will influence the type of adoption, through factors such as: user-readiness, budget, expected merits, and cost-benefits.
  • For young students, iPads and competing devices remain very popular, but they are not always 1:1. Many more affluent schools provide each of their students with an iPad to use throughout the school year.
  • For students that need to type more, Chromebooks are the most common. Middle and High Schools and, to some extent, colleges have been customers for Chromebooks.
  • For mature/adult students in higher education, the BYOD approach is most employed. Institutions provide WiFi and web-based LMS access. However, chromebooks can be found in many libraries.

Benefits:

There seems to be consensus that 1:1 availability of devices improves their usefulness. Having to share devices reduces their educational efficacy because of the reduced intensity & length of the experience and the additional time spent on file-management, configuration management, device management and distribution.

Before cloud-computing the main benefits referred to access to devices. As cloud-computing progressed collaboration, cost reduction, going paperless, 21st century skills became more of a focus. Red research included 1:1 and collaboration in its key research findings. 

One-to-one computing offers the benefits of equal access, standardization, easy upgrades, simple networking and the ability to monitor student progress and online behavior. For these reasons, one-to-one computing is a major part of education policy in many countries. These benefits also underlie the one-to-one model of One Laptop per Child (OLPC), a charity that aims to issue electronic devices to millions of children in the developing world.

With the growth of the internet-connectivity the possibility to use cloud-computing to transfer the data and administration from the devices to cloud-computing has removed the necessity of much of the tech support from the teacher.

The ultimate academic benefits of one-to-one, if any, are unclear. They may not be the same for the different eras of 1:1.

In the Laptop Era the laptops were often used as add-ons to the established teaching. Their limited use reinforced the doubts about their educational value and whether the high maintenance costs were worth the investment. According to research published by Boston College, the educational value of 1:1 in the laptop era depended on the classroom teacher.

Some schools have even phased out their one-to-one programs because there was no evidence of academic gains according to the 2007 article. (Though: Please note that the district noted in the article went for a 1:1 Chromebook initiative in April 2017.)

Other studies have shown some progress in specific subjects, especially in writing scores, that are correlated with the use of school-issued laptops. The wide range of results for 1:1 programs means there is no consensus on their benefits or drawbacks.

The iPad Era saw increased uptake of iPads (and comparable tablets) in schools and consequently increased 1:1 programs in schools. More and more education specific applications and tools became available as increasing research about educational value and implementation methodologies of 1:1 programs were published.

The popularity was based on their touchscreens, good battery life and the availability of applications as well as their general brand-related image and comparative ease of use compared to Laptops/Desktops.

The Chromebook era had several major success-factors (several of which were often also used in iPad 1:1 schools).
  1. Very portable: small laptops, lightweight.
  2. auto-updating devices. Reducing the need for device management and the need to wait while updating.
  3. Quick start-up/ almost instantaneous wake-up from sleep.
  4. Battery life (lasted a good school-day)
  5. Truly device independent. Backed-up files & configuration available anytime, anyplace, anywhere. This allowed distribution of educational content. It also allowed keeping stock of spare-chromebooks available. If a student logged in with his/her account it worked flawlessly. iPads and PCs kept much configuration information on devices making quick swaps hard or impossible.
  6. Availability of general productivity software that was cloud-based. This allowed note-taking, going paperless.
  7. Low cost (compared to iPads and Laptops) both for purchase, and running costs/maintenance (i.e. Cost of Ownership).
  8. Increased attention to professional development and to embedding 1:1 use in the teaching of different subjects.
  9. Increased involvement of stakeholders like parents and school boards because of the costs of WiFi, the increased tendency to use the devices at home and the increased awareness of processes for repairs, insurances, temporary replacement etc.
  10. Increased use in assessment and tests.
  11. Increased collaboration, self-directed learning, inquiry-based learning

Because 1:1 computing programs may have many goals, from improving educational outcomes to increasing equality, and are associated with such a wide range of teaching methods, it is also difficult to judge their overall success or value.

One notable benefit that has been documented and researched is the potential for 1:1 computing initiatives to support the use of open educational resources (OER), available in digital form, for ubiquitous access by learners.

Disadvantages:

Disadvantages of 1:1 are controversial, but there are general objections at increasing "screen-time" when the private lives of children also see significant screen-time. There may be psychological and / or physical disadvantages as there are with any technology, including the ones replaced (paper, paint, carrying more books).

While devices aren't addictive, some apps can be addictive. There can also be objection against possible effect of exposure to radiation from the screens and WiFi. As stated under advantages there is no general consensus on the scientific evidence on efficacy. In a field as new as 1:1 with the technology used having undergone major changes it may take time for clear patterns to emerge and be agreed on.

The cost itself may be a disadvantage. Schools and districts in areas with low incomes and high rates of homelessness have argued that Chromebook programs compare positively to paper for homework return-rates. Other disadvantages may be related to the sustainability of infrastructure.

Currently the cost of the sum of all replacement parts for one Chromebook exceeds the cost of a Chromebook gained through a school districts bulk discount. This has resulted in school districts transitioning from a traditional repair model to treating Chromebooks as a disposable device.

Another disadvantage is the need to future proof reliability. Up until recently, and prior to improvements in battery technology, laptops mainly served as non-portable devices. Many component issues such as battery and cabling issues related to laptops have trickled down into the Chromebook model.

This is an issue due to Chromebooks typically being distributed in far greater numbers. This risks an interruption to instruction that needs to be overcome.

Costs:

One-to-one requires substantial institutional investment. In addition to the cost of purchasing devices, the Cost-of-Ownership is not insignificant and can include connectivity/WiFi, charging-facilities/caddys, implementation, training, software licensing, monitoring, security, upgrades and maintenance. Therefore, the overall cost–benefit ratio of a one-to-one model is not clear.

Aside from the technical costs the changing of the teaching itself is labor-intensive and may require professional development, licensing, re-writing materials, re-designing lesson plans.

Several methodologies exist to make sure all stakeholders are involved and the adoption/implementation is done responsibly. For example, the Natick (MA) Public Schools 1:1 Program has the "Red" Logo indicating it is a Project Red Signature District indicating they followed the Red methodology, as well as an Apple

Distinguished District logo (competitors like Google and Microsoft have their own recognition programs). If one looks at the documents, they increased their numbers of Chromebooks and have mature planning processes including cooperation with Boston College research.

As the cost of internet services and data charges fall WIFI speeds and accessibility has increased to the point that it is no longer a limiting factor for users of Chromebooks and other devices used for education.

Recent developments:

The USA based Chromebook programs may have shown changes in the economics of 1:1 programs. Although 1:1 programs require better WiFi than previous programs, they use ChromeOS which automatically updates and patches in the background (lowering the maintenance costs).

The purchasing prices of Chromebooks were substantially lower than competing devices. According to IDC research the maintenance costs were significantly lower. Since the batteries of Chromebooks easily last a full day, schools experimented with having students charge them at home and only keeping a replacement stock ready in school (for defective, forgotten and out-of-charge Chromebooks) reducing the need for charging equipment/trolleys.

GAM (Google Accounts Management) did charge for licensing, but it could remove the necessity of other MDM (Mobile Device Management) solutions and other security solutions at lower than Web-authentication level. Some schools also experimented with parents owning the devices (and paying for them).

Having less costly equipment on site may also have saved in insurance and rooms may have become available for other purposes. 1:1 also enabled going paperless (i.e. publishers supplied cheaper digital versions of teaching materials) and reducing the cost on paper/printers used. No serious study is known of this, at this point. But individual schools have published costs and savings. 

The use of Google-Classroom software and G suite in general was instrumental in going paperless. It allowed electronic hand-in, grading and returning of projects to groups of students. Microsoft is trying to copy the classroom functionality in their O365 for education.

Uruguay's 2007 Project Ceibal.

Between 2007 and 2016, Project Ceibal was the most successful 1:1 program in the world.  It included the right to internet connectivity in school as well as at home besides the right to have a computer "Since its implementation, every child who enters the public education system in any part of the country is given a computer for personal use with free Internet connection at school. In addition, Plan Ceibal provides programs, educational resources and teacher training courses that transform the ways of teaching and learning."

The 2007 decree specified in it desired outcomes "1.2.3. EXPECTED RESULTS: Have covered 100% of children of school age within a period of 3 years with an Internet connection in their Schools as in their homes." 

By 2009 all 300.000 students were equipped with hardware and all schools had WiFi. By 2013 use of Google-drive and apps were added to CREA, and by 2015 95% of urban schools had fiber-optic connections. By 2016 Chromebooks were added to the available hardware. Since the original hardware was Fedora based Uruguay has held the top-spot of Linux uptake for years, according to stat-counter.

Recent mass uptake in American schools:

1:1 Programs in US schools have gained serious momentum somewhere around 2016/2017. In February 2017, edtechmagazine reported more than 50% of teachers reported using 1:1 computing. 

In March 2017 Futuresource reported Chromebooks had 58% market-share in US-Education. The success of Chromebooks in education was reported on by The New York Times in May 2017. Which explains the success "This became Google’s education marketing playbook: Woo school officials with easy-to-use, money-saving services. Then enlist schools to market to other schools, holding up early adopters as forward thinkers among their peers."

In June 2017, CMS-district was reported to be on a 150.000 Chromebooks 1:1 program. It looks like 1:1 Chromebook programs have come become very popular on the basis of adoption and evangelizing by enthusiastic users in schools. The suburbs of Chicago are most often mentioned as influencers. Leyden in District 212 has on its main page  

Dr. Nick Polyak saying "Over 2,000 educators from across the country have visited Leyden to learn about teaching and learning in the digital age." which clearly refers to its 1:1 program. The history of Leyden's 1:1 program is clearly told in the 2014 article "How many administrators does it take to get a district to go one to one". So, there is evidence that successful schools indeed show others the way.

The original legitimization for 1:1 education may have been derived from research by the Red group (mainly financed by Intel) whose findings describe the potential of transforming education "Our findings demonstrate that schools employing a 1:1 student-computer ratio and key implementation factors outperform other schools, while revealing significant opportunities for improving education return on investment (ROI) by transforming teaching and learning".

The influence of the change in teaching is also stressed academically like in "Chromebooks and the G Suite group of products, like Google Search, Gmail, and Google Docs, have rapidly expanded in American schools during the past 5 years.

The impact of one-to-one Chromebook devices and the pervasive use of Google's software products in American education cannot be overstated." Apple is also promoting its own 1:1 iPad programs and there are some signs of uptake of its "classroom" software and iPads for example in San Bernardino. Other countries where 1:1 programs are successful are Sweden, New Zealand (both mentioned in the New York Times article mentioned above).

​[End of Article]







​​
Technology Education Pictured below: The Importance of Technology in Education Infographic - e-Learning Infographics
​Technology education is the study of technology, in which students "learn about the processes and knowledge related to technology". As a field of study, it covers the human's ability to shape and change the physical world to meet needs, by manipulating materials and tools with techniques. It addresses the disconnect between wide usage and the lack of knowledge about technical components of technologies used and how to fix them. This emergent discipline seeks to contribute to the learners' overall scientific and technological literacy, and technacy (see https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/technacy).

Technology education should not be confused with educational technology. Educational technology focuses on a more narrow subset of technology use that revolves around the use of technology in and for education as opposed to technology education's focus on technology's use in general.

​History:

Technology education is an offshoot of the Industrial Arts tradition in the United States and the Craft teaching or vocational education in other countries. In 1980, through what was called the "Futuring Project", the name of "industrial arts education" was changed to be "technology education" in New York State; the goal of this movement was to increase students' technological literacy. 

Since the nature of technology education is significantly different from its predecessor, Industrial Arts teachers underwent in-service education in the mid-1980s while a Technology Training Network was also established by the New York State Education Department (NYSED).

In Sweden, technology as a new subject emerged from the tradition of crafts subjects while in countries like Taiwan and Australia, its elements are discernible in historical vocational programs.

In the 21st century, Mars suit design was utilized as a topic for technology education. Technical education is entirely different from general education

Current State of Technology Education:

Teach Thought, a private entity, described technology education as being in the “status of childhood and bold experimentation.”

A survey of teachers across the United States by an independent market research company found out that 86 percent of teacher-respondents agree that technology must be used in the classroom. 96 percent say it promotes engagement of students and 89% agree technology improves student outcomes. 

Technology is present in many education systems. As of July 2018, American public schools provide one desktop computer for every five students and spend over $3 billion annually on digital content. In school year 2015–2016, the government conducted more state-standardized testing for elementary and middle levels through digital platforms instead of the traditional pen and paper method.

The digital revolution offers fresh learning prospects. Students can learn online even if they are not inside the classroom. Advancement in technology entails new approaches of combining present and future technological improvements and incorporating these innovations into the public education system. 

With technology incorporated into everyday learning, this creates a new environment with new personalized and blended learning. Students are able to complete work based on their own needs as well as having the versatility of individualized study and it evolves the overall learning experience.

Technology space in education is huge. It advances and changes rapidly. In the United Kingdom, computer technology helped elevate standards in different schools to confront various challenges. 

The UK adopted the “Flipped Classroom” concept after it became popular in the United States. The idea is to reverse conventional teaching methods through the delivery of instructions online and outside of traditional classrooms.

In Europe, the European Commission espoused a Digital Education Plan in January 2018. The program consists of 11 initiatives that support utilization of technology and digital capabilities in education development. 

The Commission also adopted an action plan called the "Staff Working Document", which details its strategy in implementing digital education. This plan includes three priorities formulating measures to assist European Union member-states to tackle all related concerns.

The whole framework will support the European Qualifications Framework for Lifelong Learning and European Classification of Skills, Competences, Qualifications, and Occupations.

​In East Asia, The World Bank co-sponsored a yearly (two-day) international symposium. In October 2017 with South Korea's Ministry of Education, Science, and Technology and the World Bank to support education and ICT concerns for industry practitioners and senior policymakers. Participants plan and discuss issues in use of new technologies for schools within the region.

See also:​

​





Educational ResearchPictured below: Top 10 Best Databases for Students to do Educational Research
Educational research refers to the systematic collection and analysis of data related to the field of education. Research may involve a variety of methods and various aspects of education including student learning, teaching methods, teacher training, and classroom dynamics.

Educational researchers generally agree that research should be rigorous and systematic. However, there is less agreement about specific standards, criteria and research procedures. 

Educational researchers may draw upon a variety of disciplines including: 
Methods may be drawn from a range of disciplines. Conclusions drawn from an individual research study may be limited by the characteristics of the participants who were studied and the conditions under which the study was conducted.

​General characteristics:

Gary Anderson outlined the following aspects of educational research:
  • attempt to discover cause and effect.
  • Research involves gathering new data from primary or first-hand sources or using existing data for a new purpose.
  • Research is based upon observable experience or empirical evidence.
  • Research demands accurate observation and description.
  • Research generally employs carefully designed procedures and rigorous analysis.
  • Research emphasizes the development of generalizations, principles or theories that will help in understanding, prediction and/or control.
  • Research requires expertise—familiarity with the field; competence in methodology; technical skill in collecting and analyzing the data.
  • Research attempts to find an objective, unbiased solution to the problem and takes great pains to validate the procedures employed.
  • Research is a deliberate and unhurried activity which is directional but often refines the problem or question.

Approaches:

There are different approaches to educational research. One is a basic approach, also referred to as an academic research approach. Another approach is applied research or a contract research approach. These approaches have different purposes which influence the nature of the respective research.

Basic approach:

Basic, or academic research focuses on the search for truth or the development of educational theory. Researchers with this background "design studies that can test, refine, modify, or develop theories". Generally, these researchers are affiliated with an academic institution and are performing this research as part of their graduate or doctoral work.

Applied approach:

The pursuit of information that can be directly applied to practice is aptly known as applied or contractual research. Researchers in this field are trying to find solutions to existing educational problems. The approach is much more utilitarian as it strives to find information that will directly influence practice. 

Applied researchers are commissioned by a sponsor and are responsible for addressing the needs presented by their employer. The goal of this research is "to determine the applicability of educational theory and principles by testing hypotheses within specific settings".

Methodology:
See also: Evidence-based education

The basis for educational research is the scientific method. The scientific method uses directed questions and manipulation of variables to systematically find information about the teaching and learning process. 

In this scenario questions are answered by the analysis of data that is collected specifically for the purpose of answering these questions. Hypotheses are written and subsequently proved or disproved by data which leads to the creation of new hypotheses. The two main types of data that are used under this method are qualitative and quantitative.

Qualitative research:

Qualitative research uses the data which is descriptive in nature. Tools that educational researchers use in collecting qualitative data include observations, conducting interviews, conducting document analysis, and analyzing participant products such as journals, diaries, images or blogs.

Types of qualitative research:
Quantitative research:

Quantitative research uses data that is numerical and is based on the assumption that the numbers will describe a single reality. Statistics are often applied to find relationships between variables.

Types of quantitative research:
  • Descriptive survey research
  • Experimental research
  • Single-subject research
  • Causal-comparative research
  • Correlational research
  • Meta-analysis

Mixed methods (Pragmatic):

There also exists a new school of thought that these derivatives of the scientific method are far too reductionist in nature. Since educational research includes other disciplines such as psychology, sociology, anthropology, science, and philosophy and refers to work done in a wide variety of contexts it is proposed that researchers should use "multiple research approaches and theoretical constructs." 

This could mean using a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods as well as common methodology from the fields mentioned above. In social research this phenomenon is referred to as triangulation (social science). This idea is well summarized by the work of Barrow in his text "An introduction to philosophy of education":
  • Since educational issues are of many different kinds and logical types, it is to be expected that quite different types of research should be brought into play on different occasions.
  • The question therefore is not whether research into teaching should be conducted by means of quantitative measures (on some such grounds as that they are more 'objective') or qualitative measures (on some such grounds as that they are more 'insightful'), but what kind of research can sensibly be utilized to look into this particular aspect of teaching as opposed to that.

Types of mixed methods:
  • Action research
  • Program evaluation

In analysis of mixed methods, the following ways might be used;
  • Explanatory mixed method: starts with quantitative followed by qualitative data and results
  • Exploratory mixed method: starts with qualitative followed by quantitative data and results
  • Triangulation mixed method: all data and results are concurrently analyzed.

Organization of research fields:

Discipline-based education research (DBER) is an interdisciplinary research enterprise that "investigates learning and teaching in a discipline [normally from the STEM fields] from a perspective that reflects the discipline's priorities, worldview, knowledge, and practices." 

Examples include:
Educational research can also be organized by the subject or object of focus, as in school, teacher, student, etc., the relationship between actors such as student-teacher, teacher-principal, school-home, etc. by educational outcomes, such as motivation, learning of core subjects, learning of 21st century skills, attitudes, etc.

Results:

In response to increased attention to the replicability of experimental findings in the sciences and medicine, in 2014, Educational Researcher published a review of the entire publication history of the 100 education journals with the highest five-year impact factors that found that out of 164,589 articles published only 221 articles (or 0.13 percent) were attempted replications of previous studies.

Only 28.5 percent of the replication studies were direct replications rather than conceptual replications (i.e. usage of a different experimental method to test the same hypothesis):
  • 48.2 percent of the replications were performed by the same research team as produced the original study,
  • and when the same research team published the replication studies in the same journals, 88.7 percent of replications were successful
  • while only 70.6 percent were successful when published in a different journal.
  • When different researchers attempted to replicate the findings, only 54 percent of replications were successful.

As of December 2021, among more than 300 other psychology and medical journals, the following have adopted result-blind peer review (i.e. where studies are accepted not on the basis of their findings and after the studies are completed, but before the studies are conducted and upon the basis of the methodological rigor of their experimental designs and the theoretical justifications for their statistical analysis techniques before data collection or analysis is done) as part of an initiative organized by the Center for Open Science in response to concerns about publication bias and p-hacking:   ​
Early analysis of such reforms in psychology journals has estimated that 61 percent of result-blind studies have led to null results, in contrast to an estimated 5 to 20 percent in earlier psychological research.

See also related fields:






​
Technology Integration in Education Pictured below: Known as the periodic table of iPad apps, these are all extremely useful for the classroom.
​Technology integration is the use of technology tools in general content areas in education in order to allow students to apply computer and technology skills to learning and problem-solving.

Generally speaking, the curriculum drives the use of technology and not vice versa.

Technology integration is defined as the use of technology to enhance and support the educational environment. Technology integration in the classroom can also support classroom instruction by creating opportunities for students to complete assignments on the computer rather than with normal pencil and paper.

In a larger sense, technology integration can also refer to the use of an integration platform and APIs in the management of a school, to integrate disparate SaaS (Software As A Service) applications, databases, and programs used by an educational institution so that their data can be shared in real-time across all systems on campus, thus supporting students' education by improving data quality and access for faculty and staff.

"Curriculum integration with the use of technology involves the infusion of technology as a tool to enhance the learning in a content area or multidisciplinary setting... Effective integration of technology is achieved when students are able to select technology tools to help them obtain information in a timely manner, analyze and synthesize the information, and present it professionally to an authentic audience. The technology should become an integral part of how the classroom functions—as accessible as all other classroom tools. The focus in each lesson or unit is the curriculum outcome, not the technology."

Integrating technology with standard curriculum can not only give students a sense of power, but also allows for more advanced learning among broad topics. However, these technologies require infrastructure, continual maintenance and repair – one determining element, among many, in how these technologies can be used for curricula purposes and whether or not they will be successful. 

Examples of the infrastructure required to operate and support technology integration in schools include at the basic level electricity, Internet service providers, routers, modems, and personnel to maintain the network, beyond the initial cost of the hardware and software.

Standard education curriculum with an integration of technology can provide tools for advanced learning among a broad range of topics. Integration of information and communication technology is often closely monitored and evaluated due to the current climate of accountability, outcome-based education, and standardization in assessment.

Technology integration can in some instances be problematic. A high ratio of students to technological device has been shown to impede or slow learning and task completion. In some, instances dyadic peer interaction centered on integrated technology has proven to develop a more cooperative sense of social relations. 

Success or failure of technology integration is largely dependent on factors beyond the technology. The availability of appropriate software for the technology being integrated is also problematic in terms of software accessibility to students and educators. Another issue identified with technology integration is the lack of long-range planning for these tools within the educative districts they are being used. Technology it contributes to global development and diversity in classrooms while helping to develop upon the fundamental building blocks needed for students to achieve more complex ideas.

In order for technology to make an impact within the educational system, teachers and students must access to technology in a contextual matter that is culturally relevant, responsive and meaningful to their educational practice and that promotes quality teaching and active student learning.

​History:

The term 'educational technology' was used during the post-World War II era in the United States for the integration of implements such as film strips, slide projectors, language laboratories, audio tapes, and television. 

Presently, the computers, tablets, and mobile devices integrated into classroom settings for educational purposes are most often referred to as 'current' educational technologies. It is important to note that educational technologies continually change, and once referred to slate chalkboards used by students in early schoolhouses in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.

The phrase 'educational technology', a composite meaning of technology + education, is used to refer to the most advanced technologies that are available for both teaching and learning in a particular era.

In 1994 federal legislation for both the Educate America Act and the Improving America's School's Act (IASA) authorized funds for state and federal educational technology planning. 

One of the principal goals listed in the Educate America Act is to promote the research, consensus building, and systemic changes needed to ensure equitable educational opportunities and high levels of educational achievement for all students (Public Law 103-227). 

In 1996 the Telecommunications Act provided a systematic change necessary to ensure equitable educational opportunities of bringing new technology into the education sector. The Telecomm Act requires affordable access and service to advanced telecom services for public schools and libraries. Many of the computers, tablets, and mobile devices currently used in classrooms operate through Internet connectivity; particularly those that are application based such as tablets.

Schools in high-cost areas and disadvantaged schools were to receive higher discounts in telecom services such as Internet, cable, satellite television, and the management component.

A chart of "Technology Penetration in U.S. Public Schools" report states 98% percent of schools reported having computers in the 1995–1996 school year, with 64% Internet access, and 38% working via networked systems. The ratio of students to computers in the United States in 1984 stood at 15 students per 1 computer, it now stands at an average all-time low of 10 students to computer. 

From the 1980s on into the 2000s, the most substantial issue to examine in educational technology was school access to technologies according to the 1997 Policy Information Report for Computers and Classrooms: The Status of Technology in U.S. Schools. These technologies included computers, multimedia computers, the Internet, networks, cable TV, and satellite technology amongst other technology-based resources.

More recently ubiquitous computing devices, such as computers and tablets, are being used as networked collaborative technologies in the classroom. Computers, tablets and mobile devices may be used in educational settings within groups, between people and for collaborative tasks. These devices provide teachers and students access to the World Wide Web in addition to a variety of software applications.

Technology education standards:

National Educational Technology Standards (NETS) served as a roadmap since 1998 for improved teaching and learning by educators. As stated above, these standards are used by teachers, students, and administrators to measure competency and set higher goals to be skillful.

The Partnership for 21st Century Skills is a national organization that advocates for 21st century readiness for every student. Their most recent Technology Plan was released in 2010, "Transforming American Education: Learning Powered by Technology". 

This plan outlines a vision "to leverage the learning sciences and modern technology to create engaging, relevant, and personalized learning experiences for all learners that mirror students' daily lives and the reality of their futures.

In contrast to traditional classroom instruction, this requires that students be put at the center and encouraged to take control of their own learning by providing flexibility on several dimensions." Although tools have changed dramatically since the beginnings of educational technology, this vision of using technology for empowered, self-directed learning has remained consistent.

Pedagogy:

The integration of electronic devices into classrooms has been cited as a possible solution to bridge access for students, to close achievement gaps, that are subject to the digital divide, based on social class, economic inequality, or gender where and a potential user does not have enough cultural capital required to have access to information and communication technologies. 

Several motivations or arguments have been cited for integrating high-tech hardware and software into school, such as (1) making schools more efficient and productive than they currently are, (2) if this goal is achieved, teaching and learning will be transformed into an engaging and active process connected to real life, and (3) is to prepare the current generation of young people for the future workplace. 

The computer has access to graphics and other functions students can use to express their creativity. Technology integration does not always have to do with the computer. It can be the use of the overhead projector, student response clickers, etc. Enhancing how the student learns is very important in technology integration. Technology will always help students to learn and explore more.

Paradigms:

Most research in technology integration has been criticized for being atheoretical and ad hoc driven more by the affordances of the technology rather than the demands of pedagogy and subject matter. Armstrong (2012) argued that multimedia transmission turns to limit the learning into simple content, because it is difficult to deliver complicated content through multimedia.

One approach that attempts to address this concern is a framework aimed at describing the nature of teacher knowledge for successful technology integration. The technological pedagogical content knowledge or TPACK framework has recently received some positive attention.

Another model that has been used to analyze tech integration is the SAMR framework, developed by Ruben Puentedura. This model attempts to measure the level of tech integration with the 4 levels that go from Enhancement to Transformation: Substitution, Augmentation, Modification, Redefinition.

Constructivism:

Constructivism is a crucial component of technology integration. It is a learning theory that describes the process of students constructing their own knowledge through collaboration and inquiry-based learning. According to this theory, students learn more deeply and retain information longer when they have a say in what and how they will learn. Inquiry-based learning, thus, is researching a question that is personally relevant and purposeful because of its direct correlation to the one investigating the knowledge.

As stated by Jean Piaget, constructivist learning is based on four stages of cognitive development. In these stages, children must take an active role in their own learning and produce meaningful works in order to develop a clear understanding. These works are a reflection of the knowledge that has been achieved through active self-guided learning.

Students are active leaders in their learning and the learning is student-led rather than teacher–directed.

Many teachers use a constructivist approach in their classrooms assuming one or more of the following roles: facilitator, collaborator, curriculum developer, team member, community builder, educational leader, or information producer.

Counter argument to computers in the classroom:

Is technology in the classroom needed, or does it hinder students' social development? We've all seen a table of teenagers on their phones, all texting, not really socializing or talking to each other.

How do they develop social and communication skills? Neil Postman (1993) concludes:
The role of the school is to help students learn how to ignore and discard information so that they can achieve a sense of coherence in their lives; to help students cultivate a sense of social responsibility; to help students think critically, historically, and humanely; to help students understand the ways in which technology shapes their consciousness; to help students learn that their own needs sometimes are subordinate to the needs of the group.

I could go on for another three pages in this vein without any reference to how machinery can give students access to information. Instead, let me summarize in two ways what I mean.

First, I'll cite a remark made repeatedly by my friend Alan Kay, who is sometimes called "the father of the personal computer." Alan likes to remind us that any problems the schools cannot solve without machines, they cannot solve with them. Second, and with this I shall come to a close:
  • If a nuclear holocaust should occur some place in the world, it will not happen because of insufficient information;
  • if children are starving in Somalia, it's not because of insufficient information;
  • if crime terrorizes our cities, marriages are breaking up, mental disorders are increasing, and children are being abused, none of this happens because of a lack of information.

These things happen because we lack something else. It is the "something else" that is now the business of schools.

Tools:

Interactive whiteboards:

Interactive whiteboards are used in many schools as replacements for standard whiteboards and provide a way to allow students to interact with material on the computer. In addition, some interactive whiteboards software allow teachers to record their instruction.
  • 3D virtual environments are also used with interactive whiteboards as a way for students to interact with 3D virtual learning objects employing kinetics and haptic touch the classroom. An example of the use of this technique is the open-source project Edusim.
  • Research has been carried out to track the worldwide Interactive Whiteboard market by Decision Tree Consulting (DTC), a worldwide research company. According to the results, interactive Whiteboards continue to be the biggest technology revolution in classrooms, across the world there are over 1.2 million boards installed, over 5 million classrooms are forecast to have Interactive Whiteboards installed by 2011, Americas are the biggest region closely followed by EMEA, and Mexico's Enciclomedia project to equip 145,000 classrooms is worth $1.8 billion and is the largest education technology project in the world.
  • Interactive whiteboards can accommodate different learning styles, such as visual, tactile, and audio.

Interactive Whiteboards are another way that technology is expanding in schools. By assisting the teacher to helping students more kinestically as well as finding different ways to process there information throughout the entire classroom.

Student response systems:

Student response systems consist of handheld remote-control units, or response pads, which are operated by individual students. An infrared or radio frequency receiver attached to the teacher's computer collects the data submitted by students.

The CPS (Classroom Performance System), once set, allows the teacher to pose a question to students in several formats. Students then use the response pad to send their answer to the infrared sensor. Data collected from these systems is available to the teacher in real time and can be presented to the students in a graph form on an LCD projector.

The teacher can also access a variety of reports to collect and analyze student data. These systems have been used in higher education science courses since the 1970s and have become popular in K-12 classrooms beginning in the early 21st century.

Audience response systems (ARS) can help teachers analyze, and act upon student feedback more efficiently. For example, with polleverywhere.com, students text in answers via mobile devices to warm-up or quiz questions. The class can quickly view collective responses to the multiple-choice questions electronically, allowing the teacher to differentiate instruction and learn where students need help most.

Combining ARS with peer learning via collaborative discussions has also been proven to be particularly effective. When students answer an in-class conceptual question individually, then discuss it with their neighbors, and then vote again on the same or a conceptually similar question, the percentage of correct student responses usually increases, even in groups where no student had given the correct answer previously.

Among other tools that have been noted as being effective as a way of technology integration are podcasts, digital cameras, smart phones, tablets, digital media, and blogs.

Other examples of technology integration include translation memories and smart computerized translation programs that are among the newest integrations that are changing the field of linguistics.

​Mobile learning:

Mobile learning is defined as "learning across multiple contexts, through social and content interactions, using personal electronic devices". A mobile device is essentially any device that is portable and has internet access and includes tablets, smart phones, cell phones, e-book readers, and MP3 players. 

As mobile devices become increasingly common personal devices of K-12 students, some educators seek to utilize downloadable applications and interactive games to help facilitate learning. This practice can be controversial because many parents and educators are concerned that students would be off-task because teachers cannot monitor their activity.

This is currently being troubleshooted by forms of mobile learning that require a log-in, acting as a way to track engagement of students.

Benefits:

According to findings from four meta-analyses, blending technology with face-to-face teacher time generally produces better outcomes than face-to-face or online learning alone.

Research is currently limited on the specific features of technology integration that improve learning. Meanwhile, the marketplace of learning technologies continues to grow and vary widely in content, quality, implementation, and context of use.

Research shows that adding technology to K-12 environments, alone, does not necessarily improve learning. What matters most to implementing mobile learning is how students and teachers use technology to develop knowledge and skills and that requires training.

Successful technology integration for learning goes hand in hand with changes in teacher training, curricula, and assessment practices.

An example of teacher professional development is profiled in Edutopia's Schools That Work series on eMints, a program that offers teachers 200 hours of coaching and training in technology integration over a two-year span. In these workshops teachers are trained in practices such as using interactive whiteboards and the latest web tools to facilitate active learning.

In a 2010 publication of Learning Point Associates, statistics showed that students of teachers who had participated in eMints had significantly higher standardized test scores than those attained by their peers.

It can keep students focused for longer periods of time. The use of computers to look up information/ data is a tremendous time saver, especially when used to access a comprehensive resource like the Internet to conduct research. This time-saving aspect can keep students focused on a project much longer than they would with books and paper resources, and it helps them develop better learning through exploration and research.[36]

Project-based activities:

Definition: Project Based Learning is a teaching method in which students gain knowledge and skills by working for an extended period of time to investigate and respond to an authentic, engaging and complex question, problem, or challenge.

Project Based Activities is a method of teaching where the students gain knowledge and skills by involving themselves for the more period of time to research and respond to the engaging and complex questions, problems, or challenges. the students will work in groups to solve the problems which are challenging.

The students will work in groups to solve the problems which are challenging, real, curriculum based and frequently relating to more than one branch of knowledge. Therefore, a well-designed project-based learning activity is one which addresses different student learning styles and which does not assume that all students can demonstrate their knowledge in a single standard way.

Elements:

The project-based learning activities involves four basic elements.
  1. An extended time frame.
  2. Collaboration.
  3. Inquiry, investigation and research.
  4. The construction of an artifact or performance of a consequential task.

Examples of activities:

CyberHunt:

The term "hunt" refers to finding or searching for something. "CyberHunt" means an online activity which learners use the internet as tool to find answers to the question's based upon the topics which are assigned by someone else. Hence learners also can design the CyberHunt on some specific topics. 

A CyberHunt, or internet scavenger hunt, is a project-based activity which helps students gain experience in exploring and browsing the internet. A CyberHunt may ask students to interact with the site (e.g.: play a game or watch a video), record short answers to teacher questions, as well as read and write about a topic in depth.

There are basically two types of CyberHunt:
  • A simple task, in which the teacher develops a series of questions and gives the students a hypertext link to the URL that will give them the answer.
  • A more complex task, intended for increasing and improving student internet search skills. Teachers ask questions for students to answer using a search engine.

​WebQuests:

It is an inquiry oriented activity in which most or all of the information used by the learners which are drawn out by the internet/web. It is designed to use learner 'time well', to focus on using information rather than on looking for it and to support the learners to think at the level of analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.

It is the wonderful way of capturing student's imagination and allowing them to explore in a guided, meaningful manner. It allow the students to explore issues and find their own answers.

There are six building blocks of webQuests:
  1. The introduction – capturing the student's interest.
  2. The task-describing the activities end product.
  3. The resources-web sites, students will use to complete the task.
  4. The evaluation-measuring the result of the activity.
  5. The conclusion-summing up of the activity.

WebQuests are student-centered, web-based curricular units that are interactive and use Internet resources. The purpose of a webQuest is to use information on the web to support the instruction taught in the classroom. A webQuest consists of an introduction, a task (or final project that students complete at the end of the webQuest), processes (or instructional activities), web-based resources, evaluation of learning, reflection about learning, and a conclusion.

WISE:

The Web-based Inquiry Science Environment (WISE) provides a platform for creating inquiry science projects for middle school and high school students using evidence and resources from the Web.

Funded by the U.S. National Science Foundation, WISE has been developed at the University of California, Berkeley from 1996 until the present. WISE inquiry projects include diverse elements such as online discussions, data collection, drawing, argument creation, resource sharing, concept mapping and other built-in tools, as well as links to relevant web resources.

It is the research-focused, open-source inquiry-based learning management system that includes the student- learning environment project authoring environment, grading tool, and tool and user/ course/ content management tools.

Virtual field trip:

A virtual field trip is a website that allows the students to experience places, ideas, or objects beyond the constraints of the classroom. A virtual field trip is a great way to allow the students to explore and experience new information.

This format is especially helpful and beneficial in allowing schools to keep the cost down.

Virtual field trips may also be more practical for children in the younger grades, due to the fact that there is not a demand for chaperones and supervision. Although, a virtual field trip does not allow the children to have the hands-on experiences and the social interactions that can and do take place on an actual field trip.

An educator should incorporate the use of hands-on material to further their understanding of the material that is presented and experienced in a virtual field trip. It is a guided exploration through the www that organizes a collection of pre- screened, its thematically based web pages into a structure online learning experience

ePortfolio:

An ePortfolio is a collection of student work that exhibits the student's achievements in one or more areas over time. Components in a typical student ePortfolio might contain creative writings, paintings, photography, math explorations, music, and videos. And it is a collection of work developed across varied contexts over time. The portfolio can advance learning by providing students and/or faculty with a way to organize, archive and display pieces of work.

[End of Topic]








Educational Software, including List of Educational Software Pictured Below: List of Different Types of Educational Software - TatvaSoft Blog
Educational Software:

Educational software is a term used for any computer software which is made for an educational purpose. It encompasses different ranges from language learning software to classroom management software to reference software. The purpose of all this software is to make some part of education more effective and efficient.

History:

1946s–1970s:

The use of computer hardware and software in education and training dates to the early 1940s, when American researchers developed flight simulators which used analog computers to generate simulated onboard instrument data.

One such system was the type19 synthetic radar trainer, built in 1943. From these early attempts in the WWII era through the mid-1970s, educational software was directly tied to the hardware, on which it ran.

Pioneering educational computer systems in this era included the PLATO system (1960), developed at the University of Illinois, and TICCIT (1969). In 1963, IBM had established a partnership with Stanford University's Institute for Mathematical Studies in the Social Sciences (IMSSS), directed by Patrick Suppes, to develop the first comprehensive CAI elementary school curriculum which was implemented on a large scale in schools in both California and Mississippi. 

In 1967 Computer Curriculum Corporation (CCC, now Pearson Education Technologies) was formed to market to schools the materials developed through the IBM partnership. Early terminals that ran educational systems cost over $10,000, putting them out of reach of most institutions.

Some programming languages from this period, p3), and LOGO (1967) can also be considered educational, as they were specifically targeted to students and novice computer users.

The PLATO IV system, released in 1972, supported many features which later became standard in educational software running on home computers. Its features included bitmap graphics, primitive sound generation, and support for non-keyboard input devices, including the touchscreen.

1970s–1980s:

The arrival of the personal computer, with the Altair 8800 in 1975, changed the field of software in general, with specific implications for educational software. Whereas users prior to 1975 were dependent upon university or government owned mainframe computers with timesharing, users after this shift could create and use software for computers in homes and schools, computers available for less than $2000.

By the early 1980s, the availability of personal computers including the Apple II (1977), Commodore PET (1977), Commodore VIC-20 (1980), and Commodore 64 (1982) allowed for the creation of companies and nonprofits which specialized in educational software. 

Brøderbund and The Learning Company are key companies from this period, and MECC, the Minnesota Educational Computing Consortium, a key non-profit software developer. These and other companies designed a range of titles for personal computers, with the bulk of the software initially developed for the Apple II.

Categories of educational software:

Courseware:

"Courseware" is a term that combines the words 'course' with 'software'. It was originally used to describe additional educational material intended as kits for teachers or trainers or as tutorials for students, usually packaged for use with a computer.

The term's meaning and usage has expanded and can refer to the entire course and any additional material when used in reference an online or 'computer formatted' classroom.

Many companies are using the term to describe the entire "package" consisting of one 'class' or 'course' bundled together with the various lessons, tests, and other material needed. The courseware itself can be in different formats: some are only available online, such as Web pages, while others can be downloaded as PDF files or other types of document. Many forms of educational technology are now covered by the term courseware.

Most leading educational companies solicit or include courseware with their training packages.

Classroom aids:
See also: Interactive whiteboard

Some educational software is designed for use in school classrooms. Typically such software may be projected onto a large whiteboard at the front of the class and/or run simultaneously on a network of desktop computers in a classroom.

The most notable are SMART Boards that use SMART Notebook to interact with the board which allows the use of pens to digitally draw on the board. This type of software is often called classroom management software. While teachers often choose to use educational software from other categories in their IT suites (e.g. reference works, children's software), a whole category of educational software has grown up specifically intended to assist classroom teaching.

Branding has been less strong in this category than in those oriented towards home users. Software titles are often very specialized and produced by various manufacturers, including many established educational book publishers.

Assessment software:
​
With the impact of environmental damage and the need for institutions to become "paperless", more educational institutions are seeking alternative ways of assessment and testing, which has always traditionally been known to use up vasts amount of paper. Assessment software refers to software with a primary purpose of assessing and testing students in a virtual environment. 

Assessment software allows students to complete tests and examinations using a computer, usually networked. The software then scores each test transcript and outputs results for each student. Assessment software is available in various delivery methods, the most popular being self-hosted software, online software and hand-held voting systems. Proprietary software and open-source software systems are available.

While technically falling into the Courseware category (see above), Skill evaluation lab is an example for Computer-based assessment software with PPA-2 (Plan, Prove, Assess) methodology to create and conduct computer based online examination. Moodle is an example of open-source software with an assessment component that is gaining popularity.

Other popular international assessment systems include Google Classroom, Blackboard Learn, and EvaluNet XT.

Reference software:
Main article: Reference software

Many publishers of print dictionaries and encyclopedias have been involved in the production of educational reference software since the mid-1990s. They were joined in the reference software market by both startup companies and established software publishers, most notably Microsoft.

The first commercial reference software products were reformulations of existing content into CD-ROM editions, often supplemented with new multimedia content, including compressed video and sound. More recent products made use of internet technologies, to supplement CD-ROM products, then, more recently, to replace them entirely.

Wikipedia and its spin-offs (such as Wiktionary) marked a new departure in educational reference software. Previously, encyclopedias and dictionaries had compiled their contents on the basis of invited and closed teams of specialists. The Wiki concept has allowed for the development of collaborative reference works through open cooperation incorporating experts and non-experts.

Custom platforms:

Some manufacturers regarded normal personal computers as an inappropriate platform for learning software for younger children and produced custom child-friendly pieces of hardware instead. The hardware and software is generally combined into a single product, such as a child laptop-lookalike.

The laptop keyboard for younger children follows an alphabetic order and the qwerty order for the older ones. The most well-known example are Leapfrog products. These include imaginatively designed hand-held consoles with a variety of pluggable educational game cartridges and book-like electronic devices into which a variety of electronic books can be loaded.

These products are more portable than laptop computers, but have a much more limited range of purposes, concentrating on literacy.

While mainstream operating systems are designed for general usages, and are more or less customized for education only by the application sets added to them, a variety of software manufacturers, especially Linux distributions, have sought to provide integrated platforms for specifically education.

Corporate training and tertiary education:

Earlier educational software for the important corporate and tertiary education markets was designed to run on a single desktop computer (or an equivalent user device). In the years immediately following 2000, planners decided to switch to server-based applications with a high degree of standardization.

This means that educational software runs primarily on servers which may be hundreds or thousands of miles from the actual user. The user only receives tiny pieces of a learning module or test, fed over the internet one by one. The server software decides on what learning material to distribute, collects results and displays progress to teaching staff.

Another way of expressing this change is to say that educational software morphed into an online educational service. US Governmental endorsements and approval systems ensured the rapid switch to the new way of managing and distributing learning material. McDonald's also experimented with this via the Nintendo DS software eCrew Development Program.

See also:
​Specific educational purposes:
​
There are highly specific niche markets for educational software, including:
  • teacher tools and classroom management software
  • (remote control and monitoring software, filetransfer software, document camera and presenter, free tools,...)
  • Driving test software
  • Interactive geometry software
  • Language learning software
  • Mind Mapping Software which provides a focal point for discussion, helps make classes more interactive, and assists students with studying, essays and projects.
  • Designing and printing of card models for use in education - e.g. Designer Castles for BBC Micro and Acorn Archimedes platforms
  • Notetaking (Comparison of notetaking software)
  • Software for enabling simulated dissection of human and animal bodies (used in medical and veterinary college courses)
  • Spelling tutor software
  • Typing tutors
  • Reading Instruction
  • Medical and healthcare educational software

Video games and gamification:

Video games can be used to teach a user technology literacy or more about a subject. Some operating systems and mobile phones have these features.

A notable example is Microsoft Solitaire, which was developed to familiarize users with the use of graphical user interfaces, especially the mouse and the drag-and-drop technique. 

Mavis Beacon Teaches Typing is a largely know program with built in mini-games to keep the user entertained while improving their typing skills.

Gamification is the use of game design elements in nongame contexts and has been shown to be effective in motivating behavior change. By seeing game elements as "motivational affordances," and formalizing the relationship between these elements and motivational affordances. 

Classcraft is a software tool used by teachers that has games elements alongside an educational goal. Tovertafel is a games console designed for remedial education and counter-acting the effects of dementia.

Effects and use of educational software:

Tutor-based software:

Tutor-based education software is defined as software that mimics the teacher student one on one dynamic of tutoring with software in place of a teacher. Research was conducted to see if this type of software would be effective in improving students understanding of material. It concluded that there was a positive impact which decreased the amount of time students need to study for and relative gain of understanding.

Helping those with disabilities:

A study was conducted to see the effects of education software on children with mild disabilities. The results were that the software was a positive impact assisting teaching these children social skills though team-based learning and discussion, videos and games.

Education software evaluation:

There is a large market of educational software in use today. A team decided that they were to develop a system in which educational software should be evaluated as there is no current standard. It is called the Construction of the Comprehensive Evaluation of Electronic Learning Tools and Educational Software (CEELTES).

The software to be evaluated is graded on a point scale in four categories: the area of technical, technological and user attributes; area of criteria evaluating the information, content and operation of the software; the area of criteria evaluating the information in terms of educational use, learning and recognition; the area of criteria evaluating the psychological and pedagogical use of the software.

Use in higher education:

In university level computer science course, learning logic is an essential part of the curriculum. There is a proposal on using two logistical education tool FOLST and LogicChess to understand First Order Logic for university students to better understand the course material and the essentials of logistical design.
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List of Educational Software.

This is a list of educational software that is computer software whose primary purpose is teaching or self-learning.

Educational software by subject:  See also:






​
Computers in the Classroom: Apple vs. Android
including How to Choose Between iPhone and Android Smartphones (WikiHow) Pictured below: iPhone vs Android Users: How remarkably different they are from each other
​Apple vs. Android in the Classroom:

​When the time comes to purchase tablets for a school, the choice between Apple and Android is a major consideration. Both Apple and Google provide outstanding apps with user experiences that consumers choose across the world. Yet, there are specific pros and cons for the features of these operating systems (OS) that significantly impact the decision.

This handy guide can help faculty with facts about Android tablets and iPads in school settings.

Four Factors to Consider When Choosing a Tablet: The ideal tablet will vary from one school to the next since different apps can interact with the chosen OS to create a custom experience. It's important to understand all the factors to make an informed decision and prevent surprises down the road:

1. Apps

Apple has several significant advantages over Android with apps. Apple is the industry leader in tablet sales, so most developers prioritize its app store. The wait for an educational app on Google Play can take months. As a result, teachers can lose educational opportunities.
Apple also carefully screens its apps for viruses and glitches, while Android allows developers to release an unchecked app.

In short, apps released for the iPad OS have a far better variety and level of security than Android apps.

2. Cost:

The Apple iPad and Android tablets have a wide difference in price. Apple offers discount models for educators with a higher price tag beginning at $300 and reaching up to more than $1,000. Android tablets come in all price ranges from $100 up to $2,000 and above.

The Apple iPad is a strong pick for quality and longevity, yet Android tablets offer a variety of prices for smaller budgets.

Whichever device you choose, it will be a big investment. It is wise to pay to protect it with drop-proof casing, especially for young students who are likely to drop and bump devices.

For example, the Higher Ground PROTEx Folio is a shock-absorbent iPad case designed for students.  

3. User-Friendliness:

User-friendliness is the main factor to consider when selecting a tablet. Most users know Apple for streamlined simplicity. The iPadOS is straightforward with intuitive settings and little to no bugs or glitches. The iCloud system allows for simple backup of all data in case the device malfunctions.

The Android OS is more complex since the user is left to decipher the operating system and settings. However, it is not difficult to learn the system with tutorial training, especially if the IT department predetermines the settings. There is also a significant benefit in this feature since the Android OS allows more customizability for special projects.  

The Apple iPad is simple and intuitive, while Android tablets are more complex but customizable.

4. Security:

There are key differences between Apple and Android device security. Apple acts as a gatekeeper by closely screening every app on its store. Google Play is notoriously less careful. Nonetheless, Google now offers the Google Play for Education section, which provides Android apps evaluated by teachers and guaranteed as safe.  

Also, Apple's operating system is closed while Android's operating system is open-source.

The closed-loop system generally prevents hackers from learning the iPadOS source code to protect users. The open-source system allows anyone to read Android's code, so hackers can potentially exploit the loopholes.

It is also possible for Android administrators at a school to install a mobile device management (MDM) app to prevent students from interfering with code or the core functions of apps. This protection is more challenging to install on Apple products because of their high security.

The iPad has superior security to the Android tablet, yet Android devices allow for more administrative control.  

Try Higher Ground Cases to Protect Your TabletsAndroid and Apple tablets each have unique advantages, but both need specialized protection for the stresses of the school environment.

Collaborate with leading gear provider Higher Ground to find a stylish premium case with drop test durability for any group K-12.

Try Higher Ground products for 30-days risk-free and integrate them into your classroom with the confidence of a lifetime product guarantee you can trust.

Ready to sample Higher Ground products at your school or discuss a quote? Reach out by phone at 734-275-1003 or complete a quote form to receive a free sample.
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​How to Choose Between iPhone and Android Smartphones:

You have decided you want a new smart phone. The majority of smart phones are either iPhone or Android based, how would you choose which phone best suits you? The following steps will guide you to the most important aspects you need to take into consideration before you make your choice.

Steps
  1. Understand the differences: Android and iPhone are similar, yet they have some clear differences.
    • Do you like to change the look and feel of your phone every now and then? Do you like to use third party apps if you're not satisfied with the ones that came with your phone? Do you heavily rely on Google's suite of apps (Drive,Gmail, Google Maps)? If so then consider buying an Android phone.
    • Do you like things the way they came? Do you want a smartphone that feels premium and also does not compromise on functionality? Do you rely on Apple's suite of apps (Apple Maps, iWork, iMessage)? If so, consider purchasing an Apple iPhone.
  2. Choose which screen size suits you best. Do you prefer small, medium or big screen sizes? iPhone comes in a few standard sizes, 3.5 (diagonal) such as the iPhone 4S or the 4" (Diagonal) like the iPhone 5 and the 5S or the new larger iPhone 6 (4.7" screen) and the iPhone 6+ (5.5" screen). By contrast, Android devices come in many​ versions.
  1. Decide how important hardware is to you. Do you like the latest and greatest specs? Do you want blazing fast processing speeds and a camera with loads of megapixels? You may consider buying the top end Android smartphones or the iPhone 6+.
  2. Consider if the UI simplicity matters to you more. It may not have blindingly fast processor speeds or a monstrous RAM, but it performs just as well, with seamless performance. The iPhone's UI is quite easy to use in contrast to Android, which presents a slight learning curve.
​
  1. Consider the smartphone design. No smartphone is unquestionably better than the other. There are many accessories for iPhones and Android phones alike. Looks and aesthetics of a phone matter just as much as the hardware specs of it.
  2. Try using your shortlisted phones.
    • Keyboard. Try to type some words using the iPhone keyboard and some with Android keyboard. Both are virtual keyboard with physical feedback (Only on Android phones) but you may find that one is better suited to your fingers and the way you type than the other.
Media: transferring media files(Music,Movies) to your iPhone is be done via iTunes (software installed on your computer that takes a while to get used to) while Android can accept files by simply connecting a USB cable to your computer. The quality of the audio depends on the specific device.
Camera: similar to Music, Android photos can be transferred from the device to the computer via USB cable while iPhone photos need iTunes or special other software. The quality of the pictures depends on the specific device.
Radio: some Android phones have built-in FM radio. While the Apple has launched an app to simulate radio functionality.
Simple or advanced: the iPhone interface make use of a single 'Home' button and the app interface usually display a virtual 'Back' button. Android 'Back' button is sometimes physical and it has another very useful 'Details' button that usually displays advanced options. If you never look for any advanced features you will not miss this button but it often(depending on what app you use) comes in handy.
7.  Decide if you are okay with plan updates of the prospective OS. Apple usually pushes upgrade to all its devices quickly. Android updates take time as they have to be tested and customized to the manufacturer's theme.

Except for the Nexus series and a few other phones, android updates take a few months after a new version has been launched.
  • Some people want to be on the cutting edge of technology, wanting the latest and greatest update as soon as it is out. Others are satisfied if their phones eventually get an update, while others simply do not bother updating at all. Consider which category you fall-in and choose your smartphone accordingly.






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Computer-assisted Language Learning (aka "CALL")Pictured below: Facebook Post by Gonzalo Alarcon: Before the pandemic, CALL was used -among other purposes, for extensive practice after class. Then the lockdown forced language learning to speed up a transition to virtual education mainly based on CALL
​Computer-assisted language learning

Computer-assisted language learning (CALL), British, or Computer-Aided Instruction (CAI)/Computer-Aided Language Instruction (CALI), American, is briefly defined in a seminal work by Levy (1997: p. 1) as "the search for and study of applications of the computer in language teaching and learning". 

CALL embraces a wide range of information and communications technology applications and approaches to teaching and learning foreign languages, from the "traditional" drill-and-practice programs that characterised CALL in the 1960s and 1970s to more recent manifestations of CALL, e.g. as used in a virtual learning environment and Web-based distance learning.

It also extends to the use of corpora and concordancers, interactive whiteboards, computer-mediated communication (CMC), language learning in virtual worlds, and mobile-assisted language learning (MALL).

The term CALI (computer-assisted language instruction) was in use before CALL, reflecting its origins as a subset of the general term CAI (computer-assisted instruction). CALI fell out of favor among language teachers, however, as it appeared to imply a teacher-centered approach (instructional), whereas language teachers are more inclined to prefer a student-centred approach, focusing on learning rather than instruction.

CALL began to replace CALI in the early 1980s (Davies & Higgins 1982: p. 3) and it is now incorporated into the names of the growing number of professional associations worldwide.

An alternative term, technology-enhanced language learning (TELL), also emerged around the early 1990s: e.g. the TELL Consortium project, University of Hull.

The current philosophy of CALL puts a strong emphasis on student-centerd materials that allow learners to work on their own. Such materials may be structured or unstructured, but they normally embody two important features: interactive learning and individualized learning. CALL is essentially a tool that helps teachers to facilitate the language learning process. It can be used to reinforce what has already been learned in the classroom or as a remedial tool to help learners who require additional support.

The design of CALL materials generally takes into consideration principles of language pedagogy and methodology, which may be derived from different learning theories (e.g. behaviorist, cognitive, constructivist) and second-language learning theories such as Stephen Krashen's monitor hypothesis.

A combination of face-to-face teaching and CALL is usually referred to as blended learning. Blended learning is designed to increase learning potential and is more commonly found than pure CALL (Pegrum 2009: p. 27).

​See Davies et al. (2011: Section 1.1, What is CALL?). See also Levy & Hubbard (2005), who raise the question Why call CALL "CALL"?

Click on any of the following blue hyperlink for more about Computer-assisted language learning:







Computer-supported Collaborative LearningPictured below: Computer-supported collaborative learning Computer-supported cooperative work Cooperative learning Personalized learning, Computer, angle, text png
​Computer-supported collaborative learning:

Computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL) is a pedagogical approach wherein learning takes place via social interaction using a computer or through the Internet. This kind of learning is characterized by the sharing and construction of knowledge among participants using technology as their primary means of communication or as a common resource.

CSCL can be implemented in online and classroom learning environments and can take place synchronously or asynchronously.

The study of computer-supported collaborative learning draws on a number of academic disciplines, including the following: 
It is related to collaborative learning and computer supported cooperative work (CSCW).

Click on any of the following blue hyperlinks for more about computer-supported Collaborative Learning:






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Computer Technology for Developing Nations * -- Necessary when you have no electricity!
Pictured below: Stem Education Vectors
Computer Technology for Developing Countries

Computer technology for developing areas is often through the donation of technology to developing areas. Many institutions, government, charitable, and for-profit organizations require technology development often involving hardware or software design, and the coordination of donors, distributors, and deployers. Technical development overlaps with the fields of technical training, maintenance and support.

Opportunity:
See also: 
Developing countries lag behind other nations in terms of ready access to the internet, though computer access has started to bridge that gap. Access to computers, or to broadband access, remains rare for half of the world's population.

For example, as of 2010, on average of only one in 130 people in Africa had a computer while in North America and Europe one in every two people had access to the Internet. 90% of students in Africa had never touched a computer.

Local networks can provide significant access to software and information even without utilizing an internet connection, for example through use of the Wikipedia CD Selection or the eGranary Digital Library.

Focusing on Africa:

Exploring the introduction of computer technology in Africa:

Africa presents a unique cultural climate for the introduction of computer technology not only because of its diverse population, varied geography and multifaceted issues but also because of it singular challenges. Africa is composed of 53 countries many gaining independence since 1950 containing 75 unique ethnic groups and approximately 700 million people.

Africa has been colonized and hence influenced strongly by Europeans from France, Portugal, Britain, Spain, Italy and Belgium except for the countries of Ethiopia and Liberia.

Martin & O'Meara describe Africa's diversity and some of the issues that it presents: ethnicity, geography, rural/urban life styles, family life (class levels), access to developed world products, education, and media.

Despite this somewhat overwhelming diversity in Africa, the need for self-determination by Africans as fought for example by the Nigerian's five Ogoni clans during the 1990s over oil rights is paramount. The "bare necessities of life – water, electricity, roads, education and a right to self-determination so that we can be responsible for our resources and our environment" must be respected. Technology such as computers is considered by some to be important in obtaining such self-determination for Africa especially in the area of education.

While it has already had an extreme boost through the independence of many of the African countries, more education can lead to water, electricity, roads and more self-determination.

Bill Clinton supports the use of technology in education stating, "[s]o, I think that the potential of information technology to empower individuals, promote growth, reduce inequality, increase government capacity, and make citizen interaction with government work better is enormous" 

And at the same forum, Bill Gates further states, "Out of 6 billion people, somewhat less than 1 billion are using this technology. ... Part of how to do that is by having community access, getting it into schools and libraries, and many of the projects we've done, both here in Africa and around the world have that theme that, although it won't be in the home at first, it will be accessible."

South Africa and the Smart Cape Access Project:

South Africa has one of the largest and most successful introductions of computers to the residents in Africa with the Smart Cape Access Project initiated in 2000 in Cape Town winning the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation Access to Learning Award in 2003 (Valentine, 2004).

The project piloted 36 computers in six public libraries in disadvantages areas of Cape Town in 2002 with four computers designated for public use for each library. Libraries had the important structure with security, electricity and telephone connections, and known access by the public.

Cape Town City Council sought information from librarians to build their project realizing that free Internet access was critical to the project's success including training, a user guide, help desk support and feedback loop. They anticipated that Internet access would "create much-needed jobs for citizens, but ... it can empower people to market themselves, start their own businesses, or gain access to useful information". 

Funding for the project relied on donations and partnerships from private organizations with extensive volunteer help in accessing open-source software that is available from licensed vendors or free on the Internet. While the project has been plagued by slow Internet speeds, long lines of waiting users, hacking and budgets, the demand for more computers remains high.

Residents have used Internet access to build their own businesses using Smart Cape for administration, to obtain jobs sometimes overseas, to create some unsanctioned small-scale ventures such as paying an educated user to write one's resume, to write letters, e-mail, play games, complete homework and do research, and to obtain information such as BMW advertisements among other uses.

Older people, unemployed youth and school children have been the most prevalent users of the Internet with 79 percent being men.

With the first phase of the project completed in 2005 and the second phase consisting of monitoring and evaluation of pilot sites just completed in 2007, the roll out of the final phase of the project is underway. 

Over one hundred thousand people have made use of the Smart Cape Access Project computers' free access since 2002 (Brown, 2007) which is about one fifth increase in overall access to the Internet for the 3.2 million population of Cape Town increasing total access to 17 percent of the residents in 2008 (Mokgata, 2008).

However, the project continues to be plagued by budget issues leading to questions about long-term sustainability because of its heavy reliance on donations and volunteers. The project reports did not address the maintenance of the computers or the network which could also be a rather large expenditure. Of further concern is the lack of use by women and girls, which culturally presents a hierarchy problem because men are the public face, and another topic to consider in the future.

Africa and other less successful projects:

Unlike the Smart Cape Access Project, many other projects that attempt to introduce computers to Africa fail not only in the sustainability issue but also in training, support and feedback. Although in many cases access to the Internet via cable or wireless and electricity remain overwhelming issues. Less than one percent of Africans access broadband and only four percent use the Internet according to the BGBC in an article about Intel backing wireless access in Africa. 

The cost of wireless remains prohibitive to most Africans and possibly more important is that there is not an overall "education model" that supports how to integrate forms of hardware to provide the wireless network.

Kenya provides an example pursuing the use of fiber optic cable to connect to the Internet thus being able to lower access costs from $7,500 a satellite-delivered megabyte to $400 from present levels. The Alcatel-Lucent project started at the end of 2007 (two year delivery date) and will piggyback on the expansion of electricity to many rural villages providing Internet access. It will also provide speed that is currently lacking with the satellite connection.

Freeplay Foundation has attempted to address the issue of electricity by first developing battery powered lights for rural areas of Africa piloting a project also in Kenya in 2008."The World Bank estimates that more than 500 million people in sub-Saharan Africa do not have access to electricity supplies that could be used to light their homes" or power computers. 

Freeplay has also provided a distribution system through women that will provide income in selling, repair and maintenance for customers and is prototyping in Kenya early in 2008.

While purchasing the lights may pose a sustainability issue, such inventions could be hopefully tapped for future powering of computers in Africa.

An example of further difficulties surrounding introducing computers in Africa is found in the study of Mozambique one of the poorest nations of the world with 60 percent of its population below the poverty line. Despite their poverty, Mozambicans view their education and access to the Internet as only second to obtaining enough food to eat. This is shown in statistics that identify the increase in computers per hundred inhabitants from .08 to 1.6 in just two years between 1996 and 1998.

However, in non-urban areas where better off residents might make 40 to 60 US dollars a month, access to the Internet could eat up half of their income so community-owned settings have been instituted with some unknown success. Other pilot programs are also proliferating across the country with unknown results at this time. This lack of data regarding the overall implementation of computers in Mozambique highlights the sustainability issue of computers in Africa as does the following example in Cameroon.

Cameroon was the recipient of the School of Engineering and Applied Science communication technology through a student volunteer organization. Computers were obtained, shipped, refurbished and integrated with teaching computer skills to residents. A recipient was the Presbyterian Teachers Training College which interacts with primary and secondary schools.

However, no maintenance or support procedures and facilities were available as part of this effort and information on the continued value of the project are unavailable. Similarly but on a larger scale, Computer Aid, a British charity, has shipped over 30,000 PCs to 87 developing companies and is currently shipping at a rate of 1,000 a month.

While it refurbishes donated computers before shipping, it appears to have not follow up to the placement of computers. However, Rwanda seems to be eager to have these computers and is providing a government sponsored Information and Communication Technology policy with access to computers through schools, community and health projects.

While all of these projects are admirable, successful introduction of computers to Africa necessitates more of the United Nations' Millennium Development goals approach which has been agreed to by countries and leading development institutions around the world to promote a comprehensive and coordinated approach to tackling many problems in developing countries ("Microsoft technology, partnerships", 2006).

However, by 2008 Bill Gates had changed his perspective on technology solving problems in Africa stating, "I mean, do people have a clear view of what it means to live on $1 a day? ...

He openly dismisses the notion that the world's poorest people constitute a significant market for high-tech products anytime soon. ...the world's poorest two billion people desperately need health care right now, not laptops". 

Here the dilemma is introduced to the mix of feeding people from handouts or providing tools for their own self-determination. As a proponent of self-determination not excluding the benefit of philanthropy, a review of projects discussed above and others merged with the successful Fisher approach to KickStart International could provide a framework for more successful introduction of computers to Africa, possibly skipping to first world technology.

Martin Fisher: a possible business plan:

Martin Fisher started KickStart International with Nick Moon in 1991 as a "non-profit organization that develops and markets new technologies for use in Africa". It develops technologies advocating understanding the cultural factors surrounding making money in Africa rather than an approach of giving away technology with expertise that has little to do with Africa's ability to make a living.

Moon and Fisher believe that "the poor people don't need handouts, they need concrete opportunities to use their skills and initiative". Fisher further states that "our approach is to design, market, and sell simple tools that poor entrepreneurs buy and use to create profitable new small businesses and earn a decent income". He also stresses the need to build tools that can be supported in Africa using limited materials and assembly methods.

They have designed and marketed a number of tools focusing on farming in African countries of Kenya, Tanzania and Mali because 80 percent of the poor are farmers having only two assets: land and the skill of farming. For example, KickStart had created a Hip Pump selling for $34.00 allowing a farmer to use the motion of her or his hips against a lever as a drive mechanism.

The pump is capable of lifting water from six meters below the ground to 13 meters above it to allow a farmer to irrigate about three-quarters of an acre in eight hours. Other technologies have included pressing oil seeds, making building blocks from compacted soil, baling hay and producing a latrine cover. These technologies are being mass-produced in Africa.

The company has successfully sold over 63,000 pumps (Perlin, 2006) and estimates that 42,000 new micro-enterprises have been started using KickStart equipment such as this pump generating more than 42 million US dollars per year in new profits and wages.

Fisher and Moon further estimate that they have helped 200,000 people escape from poverty.

They have been successful in Africa because they have focused on:
  1. Understanding the culture and environment.
  2. Providing income producing tools to create new wealth.
  3. Building tools that can be supported in the environment.

While KickStart has not talked something as technically challenging as computers, its business plan can be easily adapted to the introduction of computers in Africa. For example, the Smart Cape Access Project has shown widespread success understanding the culture and environment of Cape Town, but still is concerned about sustainability and use by women.

Most notable, the project needs to consider how access to the Internet can provide income producing tools to create new wealth and pursue a better maintenance plan. Also of importance is inclusion of women and girls' positive impact in the roll out of technologies for the eventual introduction of computers to Africa.

Sources of hardware:

Inexpensive new computers initiatives:

Initiatives such as the OLPC computer and Sakshat Tablet are intended to provide rugged technology at a price affordable for mass deployments. The World Bank surveyed the available ICT (Information and communication technologies for development) devices in 2010. The Raspberry Pi is a single-board computer used to promote low-cost educational computing and interfacing applications.

Electronic waste statistics Press Release:
Main article: Computer recycling § Donation

Unep, NEMA and Uganda Cleaner Production Centre: Uganda typically has both repair and refurbishers of computers. In some countries charitable NPOs can give tax-deductible donation receipts for computers they're able to refurbish or otherwise reuse. Increased use of technology especially in ICT, low initial cost, and unplanned obsolescence of electrical and electronic equipment has led to an e-waste generation problem for Uganda. 

A Joint Team from UNEP, NEMA and UCPC, Estimate the current e-waste generated in Uganda at 10,300 tons from refrigerators, 3,300 tons from TVs, 2,600 tons from personal computers, 300 tons from printers and 170 tons from mobile phones.

However, as a result of the ban of used electronics, the accumulation of e-waste from 2010 to 2011 has reduced by a percentage of 40% An e-learning strategy is being developed consultatively involving various stakeholders in the environment sector for which Uganda does not yet have an e-waste recycler with capacity to cab down the problem of accumulation of e-waste.

List of Charitable organizations
Microsoft Corporation maintains a global list of approximately 1,800 Registered Refurbishers - however, the size of these refurbishers varies very greatly.

Problems encountered:

Technology leaders like Microsoft co-founder Bill Gates argue that developing areas have more pressing needs than computer technology:

"'Fine, go to those Bangalore Infosys centers, but just for the hell of it go three miles aside and go look at the guy living with no toilet, no running water,' Gates says... 'The world is not flat and PCs are not, in the hierarchy of human needs, in the first five rungs."'

A 2010 research report from the Governance and Social Development Resource Center found "Very few ICT4D activities have proved sustainable... Recent research has stressed the need to shift from a technology-led approach, where the emphasis is on technical innovation towards an approach that emphasizes innovative use of already established technology (mobiles, radio, television)." 

However, of 27 applications of ICTs for development, E-government, E-learning and E-health were found to be possible of great success, as well as the strengthening of social networks and boosting of security (particularly of women).

One key problem is the ability of the recipients to maintain the donated technology and teach others its use.

Another significant problem can be the selection of software installed on technology – instructors trained in one set of software (for example Ubuntu) can be expected to have difficulty in navigating computers donated with different software (for example Windows XP).

A pressing problem is also the misuse of electronic waste in dangerous ways. Burning technology to obtain the metals inside will release toxic fumes into the air. (Certification of recyclers to e-Stewards or R2 Solutions standards is intended to preclude environmental pollution.)

Finally, while the training, support, hardware and software may all be donated, it is rare for another vital component of technology, Internet access, to be made available at a discounted rate. "In about half the countries in Africa, one year of [dial-up] Internet supply will cost more than the average annual income."

​See also:







Children's Educational Video Games, including 13 Best Math Apps for Kids That Engage and Boost Learning Pictured below: Best Math Apps for Kids: We have selected the best math apps for kids that make math learning engaging, creative, and fun!
Click here for a List of Children's educational video games

​13 Best Math Apps for Kids That Engage and Boost Learning:
By Prodigy Game:

21st century education is changing rapidly and educators around the world are having to adapt -- especially with regard to using technology in the classroom. Naturally, teachers and parents alike are wondering: What are the best math apps for kids?

Radio in the early 1920s sparked a revolutionary wave of learning with on-air classes for students within listening distance.

In 1951, videotapes set the stage for new, visually-engaging instructional methods.

The handheld calculator launched in 1972, enabling students to make on-the-fly calculations without employing mental math practices.

As of June 2018, according to Educational App Store, there are an estimated 500,000 apps categorized as “Educational.”

With an endless sea of educational apps one can sift through, finding ones that effectively build skills, engage students, and boost learning outcomes can be daunting.

​How to choose the best math apps for kids:

So, you’ve checked out the best math apps for kids but are still unsure which one to use. We understand how challenging it can be to choose the right one.

If you’re in that boat, check out the nine qualities you must assess when choosing math software:
  1. DoK (Depth of Knowledge) range
  2. Teacher control
  3. Adaptivity and differentiation
  4. Curriculum alignment
  5. Data actionability
  6. Ease-of-use
  7. Training and support
  8. Student engagement
  9. Cost

The following guide will walk you through those qualities in detail, ensuring you make the best choice for your students or children as possible!

Want to motivate your child to learn more math? Our Membership is a great way to help encourage your child to practice — and love to learn — math! Click here for more.

To aid your quest for quality educational apps, below are 13 of the best math apps for kids:

1. Prodigy Math
Prodigy is a curriculum-aligned, fantasy-based math game used by more than a million teachers, three million parents, and 50 million students around the world.

It offers content from every major math topic and covers 1,500+ skills from 1st to 8th grade, as well as DoK levels one to three!

As players compete in math duels against in-game characters, it borrows elements from role-playing games (RPGs) such as Pokemon. To win, they must answer sets of questions.

As a teacher, you can customize these questions to supplement class material. The game also uses adaptive learning and differentiated instruction principles to adjust the content, addressing each student’s trouble spots.
​Prodigy also features powerful and immediate reporting tools for both teachers and parents. From Progress Reports to Usage Reports and more, use your student or child’s data to identify where they’re excelling or struggling so you can customize the content in game for them!

I have seen many students improve their understanding of math concepts after reviewing the skills on Prodigy. My students who have the privilege of being able to access Prodigy at home show even more growth.
Susan Phillips
2nd grade teacher
Miamisburg City Schools
Available: iTunes App Store, Google Play, Amazon Appstore, Web
Age: 6 to 14
Cost: Free, Memberships (optional)

Click Here to Log in or sign up for your free Parent or Teacher account here!

Become a Member today!
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2. Elephant Learning Math Academy

This math platform guarantees children will learn a year’s worth of math in three months when they use it 30 minutes a week.

Elephant Learning’s algorithm provides real-time reports that let you know what your child is working on and how they’re progressing through the growing library of mathematics activities.

Although they claim to be 100% compatible with all school curriculums -- because they “focus on concepts rather than procedures” -- Elephant Learning is not curriculum-aligned.

​Available: App Store, Google Play, Web
Age: 2 to 16
Cost: $35/month
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3. DoodleMaths
According to co-founders Nicola Chilman and Tom Minor, DoodleMaths is like a good tutor. Its adaptive learning technology tailors math content based on students’ strengths and weaknesses called “7-a-day” activities.

Using the Parent Dashboard, you can see where your child is excelling and where there’s room for improvement.

Though created in the U.K., DoodleMaths is also aligned to the U.S. Common Core Standards.

Available: App Store, Google Play

Age: 4 to 14

​Cost: $7.91/month, $73.94/year, $224.49 lifetime
Note: We converted prices above from the British Pound to the approximate United States Dollar.
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​4. CK-12
A California-based non-profit organization, the goal of CK-12 is to increase access to free and customizable open educational resources.
When a student signs up, they will gain access to a variety of free lessons in STEM subjects.

Instead of sifting through traditional hardcopy textbooks, CK-12 breaks them down into easy-to-digest concepts in forms such as:
  • Textual descriptions
  • Video lectures
  • Multimedia simulations
  • Photo galleries
  • Practical experiments
  • Flash cards
Available: App Store, Google Play, Web
Age: 4 to 18
Cost: Free
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​5. Khan Academy
​This self-described “global classroom” contains personalized learning resources for all ages, in and out of the classroom.

From practice exercises to instructional videos created by math content specialists, adaptive technology helps identify strengths and learning gaps.

Now, they’ve introduced Khan Academy Kids which they hope will “inspire a lifetime of learning and discovery.”

Available: App Store, Google Play, Web
Age: Any
Cost: Free

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​6. Buzzmath
A math resource for middle schoolers, they are tasked with helping an inventor named Alfred save a chaotic and disordered Mathlantis by restoring the population’s math knowledge.

On this adventure, your child will travel through time and meet famous mathematicians, help them regain their lost knowledge, and transform Mathlantis back to its original state.

Available from 3rd to 8th grade, the activities in Buzzmath are aligned with the common core and TEKS curricula.

Available: Web
Age: 8 to 14
Cost: $20/month, $40/quarter, $60/year

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7. Rocket Math
Complete math missions to build your own rockets and launch them into space!

Dr. Don Crawford, the original paper-and-pencil Rocket Math author, created this app to help children learn math facts in each operation.

There are 26 levels -- A to Z -- and each one has three achievements: take-off, orbit, and universe.

Any time students can’t answer a math fact in three seconds or less, Mission Control gives the problem and answer. Then you have to prove you’ve learned it.

Teachers can create an account and buy seats for their classroom. However, for parents who don’t need a plan with multiple seats and the ability to track student progress, the iOS app store has two apps:
  1. Add at Home (and subtract)
  2. Multiply at Home (and divide)

Available: App Store
Age: 6 to 14
Cost: $2.99/app

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​
​8. Splash Math
While Splash Math has single-grade apps available, the All Grades version allows children to practice content from 1st to 5th grade. This way, if your child masters 2nd grade math skills, they can go on to start learning 3rd grade ones.

Curriculum-aligned with 351 math skills to be learned, this app adapts to your child’s level and encourages self-paced learning.

Using their Parent Connect App, you can get instant notifications on progress improvement and skill completions.

​Available: App Store, Web
Age: 4 to 14
Cost: Free (in-app purchases of $7.99 to $59.99)

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​9. Twelve a Dozen​
This math game comes from Touch Press Games. They make high-quality, fun, educational games designed to strengthen key skills in reading, math and science.

Join the numeric hero, Twelve, on a journey through a universe of numbers.

She’s on a mission to rescue her family and the crumbling world of Dozenopolis from the destructive Ultimate Prime.

Kids will use their skills and understanding of core math concepts to solve puzzles.

Available: App Store
Age: 8 to 14
Cost: Free
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10. Operation Math
Earn the latest spy gear on your quest to defeat Mr. Odd! Operation Math creates a learning adventure out of math drills -- from the streets of Paris to the pyramids of Egypt.

Kids will have access to training runs and 105 missions, each with selectable math operations and skill levels.

In case you need a refresher, there are quick reference math tables in game to help them succeed.

Available: App Store, Google Play
Age: 6 to 12
Cost: $3.99

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​11. Motion Math

​This adaptive game helps students master the most challenging standards from K-6.

Its creators built their instructional math games based on growth mindset research to help improve math fluency and conceptual understanding.

Once teachers sign up and provide students with an access code, they gain access to over 900 levels of adaptive math content, including:
  • Number line
  • Fractions, decimals, percents
  • Word problems
  • Operations
  • Mental math
  • and more

Available: App Store, Web
Age: 4 to 14
Cost: Free (in-app purchases of $2.99 to $29.99), free pilot for teachers (with subsequent payments)
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12. Math Learning Center

​The 11 apps in The Math Learning Center are based on visual models from Bridges in Mathematics, a comprehensive PK–5 curriculum that equips teachers to fully implement the Common Core State Standards.

Though they aren’t gamified like other math apps in this list, they provide a digital alternative to traditional flashcards and worksheets.

Their list of math apps include:
  • Fractions
  • Geoboard
  • Math vocabulary cards
  • Money pieces
  • Number frames
  • Number line
  • Number pieces
  • Number rack
  • Pattern shapes
  • Partial product finder

Available: App Store, Web
Age: 4 to 11
Cost: Free
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​
13. DragonBox
​This group of apps covers numbers, addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, algebra, geometry and more.

According to DragonBox, their method “is a unique approach that uses motivation-based learning techniques to give children a deeper understanding of how and why things work.”

They achieve this through helping students engage with, explore, reflect on, and apply what they’re learning and practicing.

Available: App Store, Google Play
Age: 4 to 14
Cost: $4.99 to $24.99
​






​
Impact of the Covid-19 Pandemic on Education in the United States Pictured below: U.S. Department of Education Clarifies That Video Recording Virtual Lessons and Making Them Available to Students Does Not Violate FERPA and Provides Other Advice on FERPA Compliance in the Age of Virtual Learning
In response to the COVID-19, schools in the U.S. began closing down in March 2020. This was a historic and unprecedented upheaval of the U.S. schooling system, that forced schools to a near shut-down.

At the very peak of school closures, they affected 55.1 million students in 124,000 public and private U.S. schools. The effects of widespread school shut downs were felt nationwide, and aggravated several social inequalities in gender, technology, educational achievement, and mental health.

Initial closure of schools:

At the state-wide level, several states either ordered or recommended for schools to be closed. State-wide ordinances for school closures began on March 16, 2020, and by March 24, 2020, all states had closed schools until further notice. 

In the interest of public health, school closures for the COVID-19 pandemic were used to curb transmission of the disease and encourage social distancing, much like in the past with Swine Flu and MRSA outbreaks.

Disruption of school feeding programs:

A major concern regarding the shut-down of in-person learning in the U.S. was the disruption of school feeding programs. It is estimated that 29.4 million children daily receive their meals through the National School Lunch Program (NSLP). 

Food insecurity can have very serious effects on children's outcomes: short-term effects may be fatigue and low immune while long-term effects may be emotional, physical, and psychological harms. Given that such a large volume of students depend on subsidized meals provided through the NSLP, several individual school districts and state legislatures initially moved to respond accordingly to distribute meals even after the closing of schools.

The Department of Education in South Carolina announced in March 2020 that they would be instituting "Grab-n-Go" meal sites throughout the states that would be open five days a week.

On a nationwide scale, during Summer 2020, the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) announced an extension of meal waivers that would allow students to receive meals throughout the summer. On October 9, 2020, the USDA announced that meal waiver programs would be extended until the end of the 2020–2021 school year and, on March 9, 2021, the USDA announced that they intended to keep the program in effect until September 30, 2021.

However, even amid the widespread implementation of meal waivers, certain school districts have identified problems with getting students and families to access food resources.

In Arizona, the Tuscan Independent School District, which would serve 35,000 meals a day in a normal year, has experienced a 90% decrease in meal consumption. The School Nutrition Association also concluded that they were serving about 80% fewer meals than they would normally. Potential reasons for this drop in school meal usage are lack of parental availability (as they cannot visit food sites due to work conflicts) or public health concerns.

Effects on post-secondary education:

Universities were among the first institutions in the United States to transition to online learning. Enrollment for community colleges in the Fall 2020 semester dropped by 10% from the past year, with the sharpest declines occurring among first-generation students and students of color. 

Fall 2020 enrollment losses in undergraduate institutions were also more pronounced for men than women, with men experiencing an overall 5.1% decrease in enrollment compared to a 0.7% decrease for women.

Implementation of hybrid and virtual learning:

The overwhelming majority of schools shifted to online instruction starting in March 2020, implementing either completely virtual or hybrid learning. This has presented several challenges for both educators, students, and their families due to unequal access to education and inadequate home learning environments.

Several online surveys conducted in March during the beginning of the pandemic showed that teachers had several students not logging in to complete assignments. In comparison to in-person learning models, teachers are teaching less new material to students and taking a longer time to cover material, a trend that is especially evident in high poverty schools.

Online teacher instruction:

Research regarding online teacher instruction has shown that it is only effective if students have consistent access to the internet, electronic devices, and teachers have received targeted training and support for online instruction. Unfortunately, this has not been the reality during the COVID-19 pandemic. Many teachers were not well-trained or prepared to solely transition to virtual learning.

In a study conducted by the Economic Policy Institute, it was found that about 1/3 of teachers reported not receiving any training in the past 12 months on how to use computers for educational instruction. In a follow-up analysis of this finding, of those who did receive technology training, about 1/3 did not find it useful. 

Another study showed that at the beginning of the pandemic, teachers felt like they had an above-average workload trying to adapt to online instruction.

Student access to technology:

Inequities in digital technologies were known and present before the spread of COVID-19, but they have been exacerbated now that remote learning has assumed a more prominent role as parents are facilitating the education of their children. According to the U.S. Census' American Community Survey in 2018, one out of every four children do not have full access to digital technology at home.

This lack of technology is not felt equally across all students: certain population are more likely to lack technology access than other. On a regional level there are grand differences in technology access depending on the state. Mississippi and Arkansas have over 40% of students without full technology, compared to Massachusetts and New Hampshire with less than 16%. 

Numerous sources also found that students, especially those in rural and low-income areas, struggle to maintain consistent access to the technology needed for virtual learning. School-aged children below the federal poverty line at 26% less likely to have access to both internet and a computer than students above the federal poverty threshold. 

​Other populations at risk for having less access to technology are students of colors, and especially Native students, of which only 50% are reported to have full access to technology. This means that a considerable number of students lack access to technology, which presented a problem as education shifted to an overwhelming virtual mode of delivery.

​​Some students also rely on free internet and technology provided in school, which would not be an option for these students under in-person school closures.

Special student populations:

There are an estimated 6.7 million students in the United States that receive Special Education Services under the Individuals With Disabilities Act, which requires school districts to provide free and appropriate education to students with special needs. 

During the COVID-19 pandemic, several school districts struggled to create virtual programming for their special needs students, who were often at an increased risk of learning loss. Even with proper resources, special needs students can often not receive the same level of education at home, due to a lack of career/technical education, physical therapy, and medical care.

A shift to virtual learning situates parents as the primary implementer of their child's educations, which can be hard on families who do not have the knowledge or infrastructure to take this on. In several cases, parents cannot replace the skills and expertise of special education teachers, which impacts a student's development (particularly those with Down Syndrome and Specific Learning Disabilities).

The disruption in daily school routines may have severe ramifications on students with conditions like autism, which thrive on routine and regular schedules. Additionally, students with Autism are more likely to have anxiety and are losing key social and learning opportunities that are helpful for their development.

Recommendations for providing adequate care to students with special needs include utilizing Board Certified Behavior Analysts (BCBA) provided by a nonpublic agency (NPA) who will be able to support students both academically and behaviorally. A collaboration between schools and NPAs has been shown to yield outcomes regarding attempts to limit regression in student's skills.

Modified grading scales:

Although school districts across the country varied in their implementation of grading scales during the pandemic, nearly every district choose to amend how students were evaluated. Universal pass/fail, optional pass/fail, and no grading systems were all adapted during the Spring 2020 semester.

In California, the California Department of Education (CDE) set out guidelines on how districts should approach grading. These guidelines included letting students keep their pre-pandemic grade, assigning students automatic credit among completion of a course (as opposed to letter or numerical grades), and allowing students to opt-out of a course until they feel adept to complete it. 

Most school districts in California followed CDE's guidelines, with the LA school district choosing to adopt a no-fail policy. School districts across the country followed in implementing similarly modified grading scales, with DC Public Schools and Chicago Public Schools choosing to give students letter-grades based on their pre-pandemic assessments, although students are allowed to improve their grades.

Overall, school districts are encouraged to approach grading holistically and equitably. However, several people have pointed out that this "do no harm" approach does not address the existing problems with grading systems before COVID-19.

Burden of childcare:

Schools provide essential childcare for parents who work at no cost. When the COVID-19 pandemic forced schools to shut down for in-person learning, many families lost free childcare, which many depended on to be able to work. 

As a result, many parents, primarily mothers, left the workforce, creating a gendered departure from traditional working conditions. During the immediate onset of the pandemic, unemployment rates for women jumped drastically- from 4.4% in March 2020 to 16.5% in April 2020. According to McKinsey and Oxford economics, 29% of women with children under 10 were considering leaving the workforce during 2020 compared to only 13% of men.

The same study also predicted that it would take until 2024 for women's employment in the U.S. to return to pre-pandemic levels. Men's level of employment will return to pre-pandemic level one year earlier in 2023.

Parent involvement is an important factor for student achievement in both traditional and online school settings. However, during the COVID-19 pandemic parents have often struggled with increased responsibilities and uncertainties in their student's education.

According to a study conducted by the American Journal of Qualitative Research, the biggest concern for parents navigating virtual learning with their children was balancing responsibilities to address the needs of their student learners while also keeping up with their job. 

Other parent concerns were centered around accessibility (both in regards to technology and students with disabilities), lack of student motivation, and learning outcomes. Specific challenges that affected parent's abilities to be involved in virtual learning are economic resources and lack of proper infrastructures, like technology and internet access, and subsequently the knowledge to use technological resources.

The degree that these challenges were felt by parents depended on several factors, such as the age of children, number of children, and family socioeconomic status.

School re-openings:

In June 2020, the American Academy of Pediatrics strongly recommended that schools re-open as soon as possible to preserve education and socialization while limiting the growing presence of educational inequalities.

​Teacher concerns:

While most children are at low risk for serious and long-term consequences of COVID-19, many teachers and educators are a part of higher-risk health groups that may expose them to severe consequences and side effects of COVID-19. 28% of public school teachers are over fifty, which would designate them as an at-risk group. 

Educators have also expressed doubts that the proper social distancing techniques will be difficult to execute in a school environment, as many schools can have a high volume of students with not enough classrooms or space to adjust them.

Poor-quality school buildings with bad air quality, not enough bathroom facilities, and inadequate cleaning techniques also pose a challenge in the journey to school re-openings.

COVID-19 learning gap:

​The shift to online learning had several effects on how students learned during the Spring 2020 and Fall 2020 semesters. Several studies have shown that online learning is less effective than in-person learning. 

Because of this, parents, educators, and policymakers have grown increasingly concerned about a potential learning gap that may arise following the year-long period of online instruction.

There were also several concerns regarding the interruption of learning when initial shut-downs were occurring and the subsequent transition to online platforms that resulted in days of instruction being lost.

According to Stanford University's Center for Research on Education Outcomes, averages for days of instruction lost for the Spring 2020 semester ranged from 57 to 183 days in Reading and 136 to 232 days in Math.

Several experts have compared the potential COVID-19 learning gap to the phenomenon dubbed the "Summer Slide" where students lose learning abilities and forget academic content after being out of school for the summer. Studies show that the more students miss school, the worse they perform. 

In addition, several school districts are having trouble getting students to log in to online school. The Los Angeles school district reported that up to a third of their students were not logging into class in April 2020 and that schools in rural and underserved areas have had trouble gaining access to the internet and technological resources.

Given that the COVID-19 pandemic has presented unprecedented challenges across society, there are a variety of reasons why students may not be logging in for online instruction: 
  • Some students may not have access to the proper technology and internet access.
  • Others may be hindered by home factors like having to take care of other siblings at home, not having a quiet space to focus, or having to work a job during the pandemic. 
  • Also, students may not feel motivated to complete school work for other reasons like the widespread implementation of lax grading policies or lack of student-teacher relationships.

However, no matter the reason, lack of educational engagement will likely result in decreased learning and educational achievement.

A major concern with the learning gap arising due to COVID-19 is the variability of online instruction across student populations. Students with consistent access to quality online educational instruction will likely experience less of a gap than students who experience barriers to access.

The effects of long-term distance learning are likely to vary depending on the age and grade level of the students. Elementary school students may especially struggle with distance learning, especially without adult support, as they are still developing the skills needed to regulate their behaviors/emotions, attention spans, and learning skills.

Socioeconomic implications:

While overall virtual learning reports higher rates of absenteeism than traditional methods of schools, absentee rates remain higher in schools that are situated in lower-income communities. Given that the more school days a student misses, the worse they retain information and perform on educational assessments, many are concerned with the effects absenteeism may have on low-income students.

According to an April 2020 study conducted by Education Week, 64% of teachers in schools with a large number of low-income students said that their pupils faced technology limitations, as compared to only 21% of teachers in schools with a small number of low-income students.

Many stakeholders worry that the effects of COVID-19 on lower-income students could last well beyond the pandemic. In a study conducted by Yale economist Fabrizio Zilibotti, it was determined that students coming from the bottom 20% of income levels will be the most likely to experience negative and long-term effects of school closings.

The study found that students in low-income communities quickly lost several skills and forgot key concepts they had learned before the pandemic, but students in affluent communities did not experience severe learning loss.

The assumption here is that wealthy and affluent parents have the time and resources to dedicate to their children's virtual education, while low-income parents do not have the same access to resources.

In addition to economic inequalities among students, there has been evidence of racial inequalities. According to a study conducted by McKinsey, up to 40% of Black students and 30% of Hispanic students received no online instruction during school shutdowns, as opposed to only 10% of white students. 

Latino and Black students are also more likely to be enrolled in school with large proportions of low-income students, which as stated earlier face a higher rate of technology limitations. Parents of Black and Latino students are more likely to be employed in sectors where they cannot conduct remote work, which means that students with these parents will likely not have an adult at home to facilitate their education.

Mental health of students:
​
Many mental health professionals are concerned with the impacts of COVID-19 on a younger generation which has already reported staggering levels of depression, anxiety, and suicide even before the pandemic. Students already coping with mental health conditions have been more susceptible to the mental health impacts of COVID-19.

In many situations school closures also mean that students lose access to school mental health resources. Several students who experience mental health conditions are often in stressful home situations and may not feel comfortable or have the privacy to talk about their situations virtually. 

School routines can also function as an anchor or coping mechanism for young people with mental health issues, and the loss of said routines can severely challenge how students cope.

The closing of schools also means that students are losing access to many of the social networks and interactions they had with teachers and fellow students. In a Gallup study conducting in May 2020, many parents said that the separation from other students and teachers presented a challenge for their children.

According to a study conducted by Active Minds, a nonprofit group dedicated to improving the mental health of students, in April 2020, 20% of college students said their mental health significantly worsened under COVID-19.

Among both high school and college students, 38% said that they had trouble focusing and that doing work was stressful. Specifically for students living under stay-at-home orders, 8 out of 10 students said they were struggling to focus on school and avoid distractions.

Several students were struggling to continue performing well at school while maintaining their mental health, but many did not know how to cope or ask for health. The same survey noted that 55% of students did not know where to get help for their mental health.

Studies conducted during the Fall 2020 semester showed similar patterns of mental health challenges among student populations. Many students felt loneliness, isolation, stress, anxiety, depression, and sadness. 89% of college students said that they are experiencing stress and anxiety as a result of COVID-19 and 25% said that their depression significantly worsened. 

A change from the onset of the pandemic is that more students (71%) reported knowing where to access mental health resources. A majority of students also reported feeling hopeful for their futures.

See also:







​Education and Technology including Social Media in Education Pictured: Trends | Infographic: Components of a 21st Century Classroom
​Education and technology:

The relationship between education and technology has become a defining feature of modern development, fueled by the rapid growth of internet connectivity and mobile penetration. 

Our world is now interconnected, with approximately 40% of the global population utilizing the internet, a figure that continues to rise at an astonishing pace. While internet connectivity varies across countries and regions, the number of households with internet access in the global South has surpassed those in the global North.

Additionally, over 70% of mobile telephone subscriptions worldwide are now found in the global South. It is projected that within the next twenty years, five billion people will transition from having no connectivity to enjoying full access. 

Such technologies have expanded opportunities for freedom of expression and for social, civic and political mobilization, but they also raise important concerns. The availability of personal information in the cyber world, for example, brings up significant issues of privacy and security.

New spaces for communication and socialization are transforming what constitutes the idea of ‘social’ and they require enforceable legal and other safeguards to prevent their overuse, abuse and misuse. Examples of such misuse of the internet, mobile technology and social media range from cyber-bullying to criminal activity, even to terrorism.

In this new cyber world, educators need to better prepare new generations of ‘digital natives’ to deal with the ethical and social dimensions of not only existing digital technologies but also those yet to be invented. 

Education and internet are interrelated to each other. In pandemic time of 2020 online class are very important for students study for that online class internet has help a lot we can any information regarding our subject in internet

While these technologies have expanded opportunities for freedom of expression, social engagement, and political mobilization, they also give rise to significant concerns. The availability of personal information in the cyberspace raises substantial issues privacy and security.

The emergence of new spaces for communication and socialization has transformed the very concept of "social," necessitating enforceable legal measures and other safeguards to prevent their excessive use, abuse, and misuse. Instances of misuse of the internet, mobile technology, and social media range from cyber-bullying to criminal activities, and even acts of terrorism.

In this new digital landscape, educators must equip new generations, often referred to as ‘digital natives’ with the necessary skills to navigate the ethical and social dimensions of not only existing digital technologies but also those yet to be invented. Education and the internet are intricately intertwined. Especially during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, online classes played a vital role in facilitating students' learning, with the internet serving as a valuable resource for accessing subject-related information.


Education and technology in developing countries

The role of educational technology in enhancing access to education, particularly in impoverished areas and developing countries, is increasingly significant. However, it is important to recognise that educational technology is not solely about the integration of education and technology; it is also influenced by the societal culture in which it is implemented. 

Various organizations, including charities like One Laptop per Child, are dedicated to providing infrastructures that enable disadvantaged individuals to access educational materials. The OLPC foundation, supported by major corporations and originating from MIT Media Lab, has a mission to develop a $100 laptop for delivering educational software.

These laptops have been made widely available since 2008, either sold at cost or distributed through donations.

In developing countries, technology adoption may be limited, but some countries have made progress in implementing pro-technology policies and advancements in biotechnology. One positive outcome of improved technology in these countries is reduced dependence on developed nations. Strategies such as developing infrastructure, promoting entrepreneurship, and formulating open policies towards technology can be effective in enhancing education and economies in developing nations. 

In Africa, the New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD) has launched an " e-school program" with the ambitious goal of providing computer equipment, learning materials, and internet access to all 600,000 primary and high schools within a decade.  

Another notable initiative, nabuur.com,  supported by former US President Bill Clinton, utilizes the internet to facilitate cooperation among individuals on social development issues.

India is also making advancements in educational technology by implementing initiatives that deliver learning materials directly to students. In 2004, the Indian Space Research Organization launched EDUSAT, a communications satellite that provides cost-effective access to educational materials, reaching a larger portion of the country's population. 

Educational tech (EdTech), encompasses information and communication technology (ICT) and has the potential to address various challenges, such as the absence of teachers, by providing improved lessons, teacher training, and student motivation.

In recent years, the cost of educational technology has significantly decreased, making it more accessible even in economically disadvantaged countries. Tablets, for example, can now be purchased for as low as $28, and India offers the most affordable data plans worldwide. This affordability has given rise to new ventures like ExtraClass, which aims to provide affordable education to 260 million children.


Effects of Technology on Education:

The role of innovation in education is crucial for ensuring equal access to essential tools that can have a significant impact on the lives of both educators and students. To develop effective strategies that cater to the specific needs of a developing society, several important themes can be identified.

One such theme is the necessity to provide students with access to appropriate learning materials, particularly in their native languages, as this facilitates better comprehension of subjects. In this context, it is essential for education to adopt a humanistic approach, particularly in light of the increasing prominence of digital technologies. 

An example of the application of innovative technology in education is the implementation of an AI-based tutoring system at an entry-level IT school in Pensacola by the U.S. Navy.

This system incorporates a human tutor who closely monitors the progress of the students and provides individual assessments. According to the Navy, students who utilised the digital tutoring system consistently achieved higher test scores compared to those who did not use the digital tutor.

The adaptive nature of the technology appears to have a positive impact on students, as it can assist individuals with diverse learning styles and better equip them to learn independently. 


Controversy:

Technologies are being developed to address different challenges in topics such as education, health and global poverty, but there are cases in which this is not working or the results achieved are far away from the expectations. Kentaro Toyama, in his book Geek Heresy mentions examples in which this happen. He highlights the cases of computers in Bangalore that are locked away because teachers don't know what to do with them and mobile phone apps meant to spread hygiene practices and fail to improve health in Africa. 

Moreover, these past decades there have been huge improvements in technology which have done little to reduce rising poverty and inequalities, even in developed countries like United States. In addition to this, an interesting example is the one found by the economist Ana Santiago and her colleagues at the Inter-American Development Bank which conclude no educational advantage in a One Laptop per Child program in Peru. 

Another team of researchers found similar results in Uruguay, and concluded: "Our findings confirm that the technology alone cannot impact learning".
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Social media in education

​Social media in education is the practice of using social media platforms or technology to enhance the education of students. Social media is defined as "a group of Internet-based applications that build on the ideological and technological foundations of Web 2.0, and that allow the creation and exchange of user-generated content". 

Social media platforms can be used as a strategy to complete assignments or projects in a technical way. Public service announcements and service learning can be done by students as these activities help enhance a student's learning experience and grant them the ability to learn in an online, interactive way.


Student devices:

​During the computer advancement boom of the 1990s-2000s, CD-ROMS were first introduced, making the internet more user-friendly. As of 2018, 95% of teenage students have access to a smartphone and 45% say they are online almost constantly. As the use of technology and social media has become more prevalent, some educators and parents have argued that they are too distracting for the classroom environment. 

This led to many schools blocking Internet access (including access to social media sites), or even banning the use of cell phones in the classrooms. The precautions of school administrators proved to be ineffective, as students continue the use of cellphones despite the policy, finding ways to continue to access social media sites.

In response to these challenges, many schools have adopted a "Bring Your Own Device" (BYOD) policy. This policy allows students to bring their own internet-accessing devices, such as smartphones or tablets to class so they can access the Internet for research and other in-class activities.

This BYOD concept was initially introduced to reduce departmental technology costs, but some administrators and teachers have pointed to additional benefits, such as increased student motivation and engagement  as well as broader access to information.

Social media can have a positive effect through video calls, stories, feeds and game playing, all things that can happen both in and out of the classroom. Ultimately, language learning through social media may raise some questions about the potential awkwardness of communicating with teachers or professors in a professional atmosphere.

Social media allows for the classroom to extend outside of the school and offers students time to collaborate in a different medium. Kids can become sidetracked by social media, but with self-determination and self-direction, the use of technical devices can be a powerful tool. There are many new avenues to learning thanks to social media. To reach them adequately, one study suggests breaking learning with social media into informal and formal learning through academics.

Educators are increasingly acknowledging and welcoming the relative advantages of social media into the teaching process. From creating school Facebook pages to connecting students with experts via Twitter, social media has taken root as a legitimate classroom learning and communication tool. The highly linguistic nature of social media allows students to create and consume ideas or information unlike ever before.

Social media is a powerful facilitator of communication. Parents use social media sites such as Facebook to stay connected with their local community, family, and friends. Schools have been using social media sites such as Facebook, Instagram or Twitter to spread announcements, updates, and other important information home to parents or students. 

It also can create an avenue of communication between teachers and students that may not exist in the classroom. As schools create an online presence, it allows for students to become further informed of school events, calendar updates, and so forth. Further, having an online channel of communication between the school and their students could likely help facilitate a deeper level of community within the school.  

On the academic side, the study conducted by Shahzad Khan in 2010 showed that students are using social media more and it is impacting their communication positively. This study did not demonstrate a negative impact on students. Other studies by Maqableh, Quteshat, Masadeh, and Huda Karajeh in 2015 did not demonstrate any negative impact of social media on students, but instead focused on the ignorance of academics due to spending a lot of time on social media. Ndebele and Mbodile found that e-learning platforms are effective for students.


Device integration in the classroom:

Technology integration can be described as focusing on students' needs rather than revolving around teachers' needs. In a classroom with a whiteboard and a single computer, the learning will revolve around the teacher. With the use of technology, the learning environment can be expanded to both the teacher and the student.

By looking at social media as its distinct language type, it breaks down a barrier for the teachers, giving them an opportunity to integrate it into the classroom more easily. Social media in the classroom can work together by changing the approach to teaching as it becomes easier for both the teacher and the student to understand.

With the use of technology, the learning environment can evolve. It allows students the opportunity to conduct research inside the classroom when needed. Students are able to complete assignments online with the use of technology inside the classroom, reducing the drastic use of paper. Students have the ability to bring their own devices to school in order to complete coursework. If a student does not own a device, the school can provide these devices to students in need of them.

The use of technology in the classroom can be very positive. Technology can support and improve the learning environment. As technology is becoming more predominant in the world today, teachers believe that developing these technological skills among students can be very beneficial for entering the workforce. 

The advent of online textbooks has made tablets and laptops widely popular in the classroom. With this ability, students can readily access these resources anywhere at any time. They can be used for interactive activities involving polls, note-taking, recording data, and research.

Social media has a strong impact on students. In a dissertation by Cardiff Metropolitan University student Abdulwahaab Alsaif, surveys focused on the impact of social media reflected that 54.6% of students believed that social media affected their studies positively (38% agree, 16.6% strongly agree). About 40% disagreed and 4.7% of students strongly disagreed that social media helps them in their studies.

It is also clear that social media impacts both genders and according to the results. 53% of female students reported that social media negatively impacted their studies, while 46% disagreed with this point. Of the male students, 40% agreed that social media has a negative impact on studies while 59% disagreed.

The impact of using technology within classrooms can have a negative effect as well. A Yale University publication shows that students who used laptops in class for nonacademic reasons had poorer class performance overall. These students spent most of their time on social media websites, online shopping, and other personal usages. It is crucial for teachers to develop rules when using technology inside the classroom.

The use of technology should not disrupt a teacher's lecture.

A study looked at students’ in-depth perspectives on learning with cell phones, smartphones, and social media in higher education and revealed that mobile computing devices and the use of social media created opportunities for interaction and provided occasions for collaboration and constant connectivity.

Other benefits included accessing information quickly and conveniently, a variety of ways to learn, and situated learning. Frustrations that students experienced while learning with mobile devices included anti-technology instructors, device challenges, and devices as a distraction.

Apps and services:

Recent developments in technology have changed how and what students learn in the classroom. The internet gives students access to more resources, in terms of both research and learning tools. Technology has become critical for students when they must find and decide which sources are credible for internet research. 

Students can also engage in active learning by using devices to participate in their field and service learning by working with organizations outside of the classroom to solve problems and create new projects. 

Many individuals are seeing the internet as a chance for peer support. It allows students to depend on each other through social media and other internet outlets. When using the internet or social media for education, a positive effect on communication and digital literacy between students and teachers is established.

Students can also use their devices to access learning management systems like Blackboard and Canvas. Students are able to complete their work anywhere as long as they have internet service, which grants them more freedom outside the classroom.

Given the recent COVID-19 pandemic and most of the schools being closed, applications like Zoom and Microsoft Teams have become a major help for students to learn outside an actual classroom. There are some cases where students feel that being in the virtual classroom setting on Zoom is a distraction, but others who feel they are able to engage in school more than they would in person. 

Along with the Microsoft Teams application, Microsoft has introduced many other platforms used by millions of students around the world. These additional platforms include OneNote, Excel, and Powerpoint.

Through OneNote, educators have the ability to distribute assignments, notes, quizzes, etc. to their students, and students can use it as a "digital note-taking app". 

Microsoft Excel is an advanced spreadsheets app with numerous different functions including data analysis and organization, graphing abilities, financial models, programming, and time management. Students and professionals in various fields alike have benefitted greatly due to the many functions Excel provides.

Finally, due to its easy-to-use nature and unlimited design elements, Microsoft PowerPoint is very commonly used by students to create slideshows for school projects and other presentations. 

Social media has allowed for the expansion of learning outside of the classroom through collaboration and innovation. One specific study, "exploring education-related use of social media," calls this "audience connectors." Audience connectors are shown to bring students together while studying through the WhatsApp app and Facebook. This study shows that; "60 percent [of students in the study] agreed that technology changes education for the better."

While social media can promote a beneficial education platform, there are downsides that present themselves. There is a concern that students are becoming good at "lifting material from the internet", rather than enhancing their actual understanding. Another downside is the ever-dwindling attention spans of students because of social media. A concern raised by the students of this study showed how many use spell-check as a crutch, and will see a trend of points taken off when spell-check was not an option.

Apps like Twitter have allowed teachers to make classroom accounts where students can learn about social media in a controlled context. Teachers have used Twitter to post assignments directly on the class account and students have the opportunity to practice commenting and liking messages.

Other apps have developed a combination of learning tasks with elements of social media. Quizlet is an example, allowing users to create flashcard sets that are always available to study; taking these card sets and automatically generating practice tests and other activities to help students study.

There is opposition to learning websites such as Quizlet as individuals believe it makes it easier for students to cheat, claiming that students can use their phones during the test to look up answers and can pass off other students' work as their own. 

There are apps where pictures could be taken of a specific question and students receive an answer in the span of a few seconds.

Some researchers are seeing that social media applications such as blogging and online gaming may help kids become creative. There are studies that particularly refer to the convenience that social media offers for shy students and youngsters who are thus enabled to exchange and express views on this venue.

College institutions are adapting many social media platforms into their educational systems to improve communication with students and the overall quality of student life. It provides colleges with an easy fast method of communication and allows them to give and receive feedback to students.

Social media usage has skyrocketed over the past decade as present research shows that almost all college students use some form of social networking website. Conducted studies show that 99% of college students who use social media use Facebook and 35% use Twitter.

Facebook and Twitter have become the dominant forms of social media platforms that have successfully grown in popularity. Social media platforms such as Twitter, Facebook, and YouTube are widely used by educational institutions to make connecting with students and provide information conveniently. Institutions also consider communicating information through the usage of technology a vital part in student success.

In many classrooms across America, teachers have created social media pages for their classes on which they can post assignments as well as interact with their students. Schools have felt the need to make regulations for how students and faculty interact online. Many teachers stay away from "friending" of "following" their students online because it can become too personal.

A study in 2015 showed that students and young adults are using newer social media platforms like Instagram, Twitter, Tumblr, Reddit, etc. more than ever before . They are using these platforms not only to be contact with other students but they are using it to keep up with their school and things going.

Many schools have adapted to using social media outlets in 2021. Many have their own social media platforms and post things that relevant to the school. There are also many teachers that are using social media channels and video outlets to interact with students.

Teachers may post on social media about class activities, school events, homework assignments which is very helpful to those students who may not listen in class. They can also use outlets like YouTube and Zoom to record their classes and lectures a head of time and post them to help dedicate more time in class for other things.

The access of social media provides the opportunity for educators to teach good digital citizenship and the use of Internet for productivity. In 2021 technology is expanding and with the world in a global pandemic teaching online and students attending school is making technology even more important.

Now teachers are using many different outlet to reach their students  the following make it easier connect and communicate with students:

Facebook:

Using Facebook in class allows for both an asynchronous and synchronous, open speech via a familiar and regularly accessed medium, and supports the integration of multimodal content such as student-created photographs and video and URLs to other texts, in a platform that many students are already familiar with.

Further, it allows students to ask more minor questions that they might not otherwise feel motivated to visit a professor in person during office hours to ask. It also allows students to manage their own privacy settings, and often work with the privacy settings they have already established as registered users.

Facebook is one alternative means for shyer students to be able to voice their thoughts in and outside of the classroom. It allows students to collect their thoughts and articulate them in writing before committing to their expression. 

Further, the level of informality typical to Facebook can also aid students in self-expression and encourage more frequent student-and-instructor and student-and-student communication. At the same time, Towner and Munoz note that this informality may actually drive many educators and students away from using Facebook for educational purposes.

From a course management perspective, Facebook may be less efficient as a replacement for more conventional course management systems, both because of its limitations with regard to uploading assignments and due to some students' (and educators') resistance to its use in education.

Specifically, there are features of student-to-student collaboration that may be conducted more efficiently on dedicated course management systems, such as the organization of posts in a nested and linked format. That said, a number of studies suggest that students post to discussion forums more frequently and are generally more active discussants on Facebook posts versus conventional course management systems like WebCT or Blackboard (Chu and Meulemans, 2008; Salaway, et al., 2008; Schroeder and Greenbowe, 2009).

Further, familiarity and comfort with Facebook are often divided by socio-economic class, with students whose parents obtained a college degree; or at least having attended college for some span of time, being more likely to already be active users. 

Instructors ought to seriously consider and respect these hesitancies, and refrain from "forcing" Facebook on their students for academic purposes. Instructors also ought to consider that rendering Facebook optional, but continuing to provide content through it to students who elect to use it, places an unfair burden on hesitant students, who then are forced to choose between using a technology they are uncomfortable with and participating fully in the course.

A related limitation, particularly at the level of K-12 schooling, is the distrust (and in some cases, outright prohibition) of the use of Facebook in formal classroom settings in many educational jurisdictions. However, this hesitancy towards Facebook use is continually diminishing in the United States, as the Pew Internet & American Life Project's annual report for 2012 shows that the likelihood of a person to be a registered Facebook user only fluctuates by:
  • 13 percent between different levels of educational attainment,
  • 9 percent between urban, suburban, and rural users,
  • only 5 percent between different household income brackets.

The largest gap occurs between age brackets, with 86 percent of 18- to 29-year-olds reported as registered users as opposed to only 35 percent of 65-and-up-year-old users.

Twitter
​
Twitter can be used to enhance communication building and critical thinking. Domizi (2013) utilized Twitter in a graduate seminar requiring students to post weekly tweets to extend classroom discussions. Students reportedly used Twitter to connect with content and other students.

Additionally, students found it "to be useful professionally and personally". Junco, Heibergert, and Loken (2011) completed a study of 132 students to examine the link between social media and student engagement and social media and grades. They divided the students into two groups in which one used Twitter while the other group did not. Twitter was used to discuss material, organize study groups, post class announcements, and connect with classmates.

Junco and his colleagues (2011) found that the students in the Twitter group had higher GPA's and greater engagement scores than the control group.

Gao, Luo, and Zhang (2012) reviewed literature about Twitter published between 2008 and 2011. They concluded that Twitter allowed students to participate with each other in class (by creating an informal "back channel"), and extend discussion outside of class time. They also reported that students used Twitter to get up-to-date news and connect with professionals in their field.

Students reported that microblogging encouraged students to "participate at a higher level". Because the posts cannot exceed 140 characters, students were required to express ideas, reflect, and focus on important concepts in a concise manner. Some students found this very beneficial. Other students did not like the character limit.

Also, some students found microblogging to be overwhelming (information overload). The research indicated that many students did not actually participate in the discussions, "they just lurked" online and watched the other participants.

YouTube:
See also: Social impact of YouTube

​YouTube is a frequently used social media tool in the classroom (also the second most visited website in the world). Students can watch videos, answer questions, and discuss content.

Additionally, students can create videos to share with others. Sherer and Shea (2011) claimed that YouTube increased participation, personalization (customization), and productivity.

YouTube also improved students' digital skills and provided opportunities for peer learning and problem-solving Eick et al. (2012) found that videos kept students' attention, generated interest in the subject, and clarified course content. 

Additionally, the students reported that the videos helped them recall information and visualize real-world applications of course concepts. In the early 2000s right as YouTube was getting its start a man by the name of Salman Khan began uploading lecture videos. As his videos grew more popular Khan Academy was born and Salman began to expand his lecture topics in order to reach a wider audience of students. Today Khan Academy is still in use and its continuing positive impact on education is seen as well. 

Another popular channel teachers use on YouTube is TED. This channel posts TED Talks, which are videos of presentations and discussions used to share research and knowledge on certain topics with viewers all over the world. Educated professionals including scientists, researchers, doctors, and others of varying professions stand in front of audiences to share their knowledge in their respective fields of research, as well as educate and inform the population of their findings. 

Furthermore, a study done by Dr. Trishu Sharma found that YouTube accommodates to different styles of learning, as a typical classroom setting may not be the most effective form of education for many individuals. In addition, specialized videos on YouTube can go more in-depth on a certain topic a student is struggling to grasp, as well as introduce new topics that may not have been taught in a classroom setting.
​

Use:

Social media is becoming more accessible and easier to use, meaning that younger students are able to understand and use social media. Integrating social media into education has been a controversial topic since the 2010s in which people have continued to debate on whether or not these types of media have a place in the classroom.

Many parents and educators have been fearful of the repercussions in having social media in schools. There are concerns that social media tools can be misused for cyberbullying or sharing inappropriate content. 

As a result, cell phones have been banned from some classrooms, and schools have gone so far as to block popular social media websites. However, despite apprehensions, students in industrialized countries are (or will be) active social media users. As a result, many schools have realized that they need to loosen restrictions, teach digital citizenship skills, and even incorporate these tools into classrooms.

The Peel District School Board (PDSB) in Ontario is one of many school boards that has begun to accept the use of social media in the classroom. In 2013, the PDSB introduced a "Bring Your Own Device" (BYOD) policy and unblocked many social media sites.

Fewkes and McCabe (2012) have researched about the benefits of using Facebook in the classroom. Some schools permit students to use smartphones or tablet computers in class, as long as the students are using these devices for academic purposes, such as doing research.

The use of social media in education has helped many educators mentor their students more effectively compared to previous teaching methods. School administrators also receive some benefits when it comes to utilizing social media and technology within school grounds.

Administrators have the ability to utilize social media to distribute school news to students and teachers along with establishing network connections or starting fundraising projects.

Rather than compete with, or deny access to social media sites, some schools have embraced them, and are using them to further students' educations. Rather, a school curriculums across the world should recognize the importance of social media in the lives of youngsters today and adapt it to make it a part of the collaborative learning, that not only offers flexibility to students but also increases social media education and allows them to learn good social media practices.

Parents, students, and teachers use social media to connect and educational sites to communicate inside and outside the classroom. Programs like Blackboard, Moodle, and Slack have created platforms to enhance the learning experience for students and make it easier for teachers to monitor their students' progress with assignments.

​These sites are not considered "social media" websites, their added communication features such as forums create an experience that is similar to that of social media. A 2018 study from Pew Research, 95% of teenagers currently had a cell phone and 45% of them stated they used social media consistently. 

As technology in schools continue to grow throughout the nation, a survey from Cambridge International (nearly 20,000 teachers and students (ages 12–19) from 100 countries) found that 48% of students use a desktop computer in class, 42% uses smartphones, 33% use interactive whiteboards and 20% use tablets.

Desktop computers are used the most in classrooms more than tablets, 75% of desktop computers are in schools. On the other hand, teachers are moving away from the no phones at school rule, and are implementing them into their courses to keep students' attention in class.

Additionally, teachers are at risk when using these platforms. For example, their use of social media outside of the classroom is not always protected by the teachers union. Educators take a risk when choosing to communicate with students outside of the classroom, especially when they are private conversations through social media.

Transparency is the key to communicating with students. Teachers are choosing to use Twitter as a way to talk to their students because it is a social media site where posts and comments are open to the public.

For example, instructors in a study conducted in 2010 reported that online technologies (social media) can help students become comfortable having discussions with their peers outside the classroom better than their traditional counterparts.

Social media is changing the dynamic of how teachers educate students; it is becoming a part of cultures within classrooms. Technology enhances education, making a 'new culture of learning. Students, especially in colleges and universities use social media the majority of their time daily. Educators can incorporate a social media outlet that their students are using regularly. The increased presence of social media in higher education settings is an outlet for universities that want to reconnect with their students.

It has played a role in providing news updates to students and informing them about course activities. Zehra Mohsin, Falak Jamil, and Bhamani study focused that students usually waste their time when they work on their social media profiles. Hamade in 2013, in a study, provided that social media is positive in providing better linkage in family and friends and helps to be more social on socio-political grounds. 

With those social media sites come political and historical memes and videos that inform students about specific topics. Social media is important for students to learn and be part of a community when they are posting about a certain topic or using a hashtag to join a movement.

According to a study done by Lisa Marie Blaschke Weisberger's hypothesis is supported by research by Junco, Heiberger and Loken (2011) and Blaschke, Porto, and Kurtz (2010), proved to say that the use of social media can increase learner engagement levels (student-student, student-instructor, and student-content) and promote the development of cognitive and metacognitive learning skills, such as reflection, critical thinking, construction of knowledge and understanding of one's individual learning process.

On the other hand, a limitation to social media in education is the limited research and development on the subject. Additionally, social media in educational institutions leads to the risk of potential of cyberbullying. Research has been conducted on this growing issue which can lead to legal consequences for the perpetrator. As for the victims, cyberbullying can result in emotional and physical harm which can lead to fatal consequences.


Benefits:

Social media can help to aid teachers in communicating with students even when they are outside of the classroom. Use of social media platforms can provide students with unlimited resources and texts from credible sources that they can utilize to their advantage in essays, projects, and presentations.

They can also be used as a means of giving and receiving feedback at any time. This way students can easily access comments made by teachers and peers within a few minutes.

Social media has the potential to change a teacher's pathway in teaching. Social media can be seen as a sort of an archive of ideas and other media that can be retrieved by their users day or night.

Since feedback can be submitted so quickly over social media, it has bridged a gap in communication between students and teachers. Since students are able to view and respond almost immediately, there has been an increase in communication which has led to a deeper understanding of class material for students.


Disadvantages:

It is always important to be cautious when using social media, especially in the classroom. Although it's not recommended to ignore social media, individuals should still have an understanding of the negative impacts social media can have on society. Critics are unsure about how social media will affect the teacher-student relationship and commonly express concern about how distracting this kind of learning is.

It has become a fear that students will become caught up in the chaos of social media instead of focusing on their schoolwork. With this comes the idea that an individual's intelligence might depend on these social media instead of using them to help aid their foundations of thought. The overuse of this technology, while convenient, can also harm the expression of critical thought. 

Putting young students on social media sites for the purpose of education can also be detrimental to their mental health. According to a survey taken of teens and young adults increased use of social media can lead to anxiety, depression, and lack of self-esteem. These issues can affect how a person functions normally and can be detrimental to education. If a student is overcome with mental health issues due to constant social media use, then it can be difficult for students to focus on schoolwork. 

Social media usage in higher education has its limitations, such as the dominance of educators in interactions between staff and students, privacy concerns, anti-social interactions, and discriminatory behavior.

There are other challenges relating to the introduction of social media in the classroom. For example, students may have more experience in how to work a technical device while teachers may struggle in that aspect. It is critical for teachers to adapt to a new way of teaching, it being in an online manner.

Students may need social media platforms to complete assignments or projects or simply conduct service learning. There are a variety of social sites, each one with different micro-societal rules and customs. For an instructor to be able to educate students using a site, they will have to adapt and learn how to properly use technology for their delivery of teaching material.

Additionally, it is important to note the life-altering negative effects social media can have on an individual. Posting something too divisive or insensitive can have long-lasting career effects and can cause people to make important decisions about their futures, whether they are hoping to stay out of the spotlight or get closer to it. Some young people actively decide to remove themselves from social media in order to make sure that they are not in danger of these sorts of mistakes, which could complicate any required use of social media in the classroom.

Cases of anxiety and depression in adolescents are rapidly increasing, and this is closely related to social media. Most of the lives portrayed on social media are not a true reflection of someone's real life. Teenagers lack the life experience to be objective about what they see on social media. One of the biggest and most dangerous problems students face when posting photos or statuses on social media is cyberbullying and cyberstalking.

In the virtual world, people are not having face-to-face conversations, so it is easy to say things that they would normally be afraid to say.


Restrictions on social media:

Although there was some backlash from state educators, Missouri passed a law that prohibited teachers from communicating privately with students over social media platforms in 2011. 

Legislators who helped pass this were worried that online communication between underage students and faculty would lead to inappropriate relationships that would cause issues in the classroom. Missouri is not the only state that has taken strides toward limiting social media usage. Communication is an important tool teachers utilize but certain situations can be misconstrued by outside sources if said communication reaches a more personal level.

Due to this stigma, teachers are forced to keep all communication with students professional regardless of the platform it takes place upon.

See also:







Ivy League Schools
Pictured to Right: Individual Ivy League Schools @ Map of Locations (@ TOP)
Ivy League Schools
The Ivy League is an American collegiate athletic conference of eight private research universities in the Northeastern United States. It participates in the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I, and in football, in the Football Championship Subdivision (FCS).

The term Ivy League is used more broadly to refer to the eight schools that belong to the league, which are globally-renowned as elite colleges associated with academic excellence, highly selective admissions, and social elitism. The term was used as early as 1933, and it became official in 1954 following the formation of the Ivy League athletic conference.

The eight members of the Ivy League are: 
  1. Brown University, 
  2. Columbia University, 
  3. Cornell University, 
  4. Dartmouth College, 
  5. Harvard University, 
  6. University of Pennsylvania, 
  7. Princeton University,
  8. and Yale University.

The conference headquarters are in Princeton, New Jersey. All of the "Ivies" except Cornell were founded during the colonial period and therefore make up seven of the nine colonial colleges. The other two colonial colleges, Queens College (now Rutgers University) and the College of William & Mary, became public institutions.

Overview:

The flags of all eight Ivy League universities fly over Columbia University's Wien Stadium in Manhattan Ivy League schools are some of the most prestigious universities in the world. All eight universities place in the top 18 of the 2024 U.S. News & World Report National Universities ranking. 

U.S. News has named a member of the Ivy League as the best national university every year since 2001: as of 2020, Princeton eleven times, Harvard twice, and the two schools tied for first five times. In the 2022–2023 U.S. News & World Report Best Global University Ranking, five Ivies rank in the top 20: Harvard (#1), Columbia (#7), Yale (#11), Penn (#15), and Princeton (#16)—ranks that U.S. News says are based on "indicators that measure their academic research performance and their global and regional reputations." 

All eight Ivy League schools are members of the Association of American Universities, the most prestigious alliance of American research universities.

Undergraduate enrollments range from about 4,500 to about 15,000, larger than most liberal arts colleges and smaller than most state university systems. Total enrollment, which includes graduate students, ranges from approximately 6,600 at Dartmouth to over 20,000 at Columbia, Cornell, Harvard, and Penn. Ivy League financial endowments range from Brown's $6.9 billion to Harvard's $53.2 billion, the largest financial endowment of any academic institution in the world.

The Ivy League is similar to other groups of universities in other countries, such as Oxbridge in England, the C9 League in China, and the Imperial Universities in Japan.

Members:

Ivy League universities have some of the largest university financial endowments in the world, allowing the universities to provide abundant resources for their academic programs, financial aid, and research endeavors.

​As of 2021, Harvard University had an endowment of $53.2 billion, the largest of any educational institution. Each university attracts millions of dollars in annual research funding from both the federal government and private sources.
​Former affiliate members:

Before the 2000s, many of the Ivy League championships for men's and women's cross country, indoor and outdoor track & field, and swimming & diving were formatted as invitationals that many schools across the eastern United States would attend.

In other sports such as fencing, wrestling, men's and women's ice hockey, and men's and women's rowing, all of the Ivy League schools were members of other single-sport conferences and the top performing Ivy League team would be crowned the champion.

The United States Military Academy and the United States Naval Academy were members of the Ivy League in many sports and were crowned as Ivy League champions while competing with Ivy League teams. Both schools ended up departing from the conference in the early 2000s to align with their current conference, the Patriot League.

History
​Note: Six of the eight Ivy League universities consider their founding dates to be simply the date that they received their charters and thus became legal corporations with the authority to grant academic degrees. Harvard University uses the date that the legislature of the Massachusetts Bay Colony formally allocated funds for the creation of a college. Harvard was chartered in 1650, although classes had been conducted for approximately a decade by then. The University of Pennsylvania initially considered its founding date to be 1750; this is the year which appears on the first iteration of the university seal. Later in Penn's early history, the university changed its officially recognized founding date to 1749, which was used for all of the nineteenth century, including a centennial celebration in 1849. In 1899, Penn's board of trustees formally adopted a third founding date of 1740, in response to a petition from Penn's General Alumni Society. Penn was chartered in 1755, the same year collegiate classes began. "Religious affiliation" refers to financial sponsorship, formal association with, and promotion by, a religious denomination. All of the schools in the Ivy League are private and not currently associated with any religion.

Origin of the name:

"Planting the ivy" was a customary class day ceremony at many colleges in the 1800s. In 1893, an alumnus told The Harvard Crimson, "In 1850, class day was placed upon the University Calendar ... the custom of planting the ivy, while the ivy oration was delivered, arose about this time." 

At Penn, graduating seniors started the custom of planting ivy at a university building each spring in 1873 and that practice was formally designated as "Ivy Day" in 1874. 

Ivy planting ceremonies are recorded at Yale, Simmons College, and Bryn Mawr College among other schools. Princeton's "Ivy Club" was founded in 1879.

The first usage of Ivy in reference to a group of colleges is from sportswriter Stanley Woodward (1895–1965).

"A proportion of our eastern ivy colleges are meeting little fellows another Saturday before plunging into the strife and the turmoil"  Stanley Woodward, New-York Tribune, October 14, 1933, describing the football season.The first known instance of the term Ivy League appeared in The Christian Science Monitor on February 7, 1935. 

Several sportswriters and other journalists used the term shortly later to refer to the older colleges, those along the northeastern seaboard of the United States, chiefly the nine institutions with origins dating from the colonial era, together with the United States Military Academy (West Point), the United States Naval Academy, and a few others.

These schools were known for their long-standing traditions in intercollegiate athletics, often being the first schools to participate in such activities. At this time, however, none of these institutions made efforts to form an athletic league.

A common folk etymology attributes the name to the Roman numeral for four (IV), asserting that there was such a sports league originally with four members. The Morris Dictionary of Word and Phrase Origins helped to perpetuate this belief.

The supposed "IV League" was formed over a century ago and consisted of Harvard, Yale, Princeton, and a fourth school that varies depending on who is telling the story. However, it is clear that Harvard, Princeton, Columbia, and Yale met on November 23, 1876, at the so-called Massasoit Convention to decide on uniform rules for the emerging game of American football, which rapidly spread.

Pre-Ivy League:

Seven out of the eight Ivy League schools are Colonial Colleges: institutions of higher education founded prior to the American Revolution: Cornell, the exception to this commonality, was founded immediately after the American Civil War. These seven colleges served as the primary institutions of higher learning in British America's Northern and Middle Colonies.

During the colonial era, the schools' faculties and founding boards were largely drawn from other Ivy League institutions. Also represented were British graduates from:
The influence of these institutions on the founding of other colleges and universities is notable. This included the Southern public college movement which blossomed in the decades surrounding the turn of the 19th century when Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina and Virginia established what became the flagship universities of their respective states.

In 1801, a majority of the first board of trustees for what became the University of South Carolina were Princeton alumni. They appointed Jonathan Maxcy, a Brown graduate, as the university's first president. Thomas Cooper, an Oxford alumnus and University of Pennsylvania faculty member, became the second president of the South Carolina college.

The founders of the University of California came from Yale, hence Berkeley's colors are Yale Blue and California Gold. Stanford University has, since its earliest days, been nicknamed the "Cornell of the West": more than half of Stanford's initial faculty, as well as its first two presidents, had connections to Cornell as alumni or faculty.

A plurality of the Ivy League schools have identifiable Protestant roots. Harvard, Yale, and Dartmouth all held early associations with the Congregationalists. Princeton was financed by New Light Presbyterians, though originally led by a Congregationalist.

Brown was founded by Baptists, though the university's charter stipulated that students should enjoy "full liberty of conscience." Columbia was founded by Anglicans, who composed 10 of the college's first 15 presidents.

Penn and Cornell were officially nonsectarian, though Protestants were well represented in their respective founding. In the early nineteenth century, the specific purpose of training Calvinist ministers was handed off to theological seminaries, but a denominational tone and religious traditions including compulsory chapel often lasted well into the twentieth century.

"Ivy League" is sometimes used as a way of referring to an elite class, even though institutions such as Cornell University were among the first in the United States to reject racial and gender discrimination in their admissions policies. This dates back to at least 1935. 

Novels and memoirs attest this sense, as a social elite; to some degree independent of the actual schools.


History of the athletic league:

19th century:
​
​In 1870, the nation's first formal athletic league was created in 1870 with the formation of the Rowing Association of American Colleges (RAAC), composed exclusively of Ivy League universities. RAAC hosted a national championship in rowing from 1870 to 1894.

The first Harvard vs Yale rugby football contest was held in 1875, two years after the inaugural Princeton–Yale rugby football contest. Harvard athlete Nathaniel Curtis challenged Yale's captain, William Arnold to a rugby-style game. 

Program for the "Foot Ball Match", Harvard v Yale, the first intercollegiate game. It is considered the first rugby game between Ivy League teams. The game was played at Hamilton Park, a venue in New Haven, Connecticut (located at the intersection of Whalley Avenue and West Park Avenue). The two teams played with 15 players (rugby) on a side instead of 11 (soccer) as Yale would have preferred.

In 1881 the following shools formed the Intercollegiate Cricket Association:
Penn won The Intercollegiate Cricket Association championship 23 times, including 18 solo victories and three shared with Haverford and Harvard, one shared with Haverford and Cornell, and one shared with just Haverford, during the 44 years that the Intercollegiate Cricket Association existed from 1881 through 1924.

In 1895, Cornell, Columbia, and Penn founded the Intercollegiate Rowing Association, which remains the oldest collegiate athletic organizing body in the US. To this day, the IRA Championship Regatta determines the national champion in rowing and all of the Ivies are regularly invited to compete.

A basketball league was later created in 1902, when Columbia, Cornell, Harvard, Yale, and Princeton formed the Eastern Intercollegiate Basketball League; they were later joined by Penn and Dartmouth.

20th century:

In 1906, the organization that eventually became the National Collegiate Athletic Association was formed, primarily to formalize rules for the emerging sport of football. But of the 39 original member colleges in the NCAA, only two of them (Dartmouth and Penn) later became Ivies.

In February 1903, intercollegiate wrestling began when Yale accepted a challenge from Columbia, published in the Yale News. The dual meet took place prior to a basketball game hosted by Columbia and resulted in a tie.

Two years later, Penn and Princeton also added wrestling teams, leading to the formation of the student-run Intercollegiate Wrestling Association, now the Eastern Intercollegiate Wrestling Association (EIWA), the first and oldest collegiate wrestling league in the US.

​Though schools now in Ivy League (such as Yale and Columbia) played against each other in the 1880s, it was not until 1930 that Columbia, Cornell, Dartmouth, Penn, Princeton and Yale formed the Eastern Intercollegiate Baseball League; they were later joined by Harvard, Brown, Army and Navy.

Before the formal establishment of the Ivy League, there was an "unwritten and unspoken agreement among certain Eastern colleges on athletic relations". The earliest reference to the "Ivy colleges" came in 1933, when Stanley Woodward of the New York Herald Tribune used it to refer to the eight current members plus Army. In 1935, the Associated Press reported on an example of collaboration between the schools:
  • "The athletic authorities of the so-called "Ivy League" are considering drastic measures to curb the increasing tendency toward riotous attacks on goal posts and other encroachments by spectators on playing fields".— The Associated Press, The New York Times.
​
Despite such collaboration, the universities did not seem to consider the formation of the league as imminent. Romeyn Berry, Cornell's manager of athletics, reported the situation in January 1936 as follows: "I can say with certainty that in the last five years—and markedly in the last three months—there has been a strong drift among the eight or ten universities of the East which see a good deal of one another in sport toward a closer bond of confidence and cooperation and toward the formation of a common front against the threat of a breakdown in the ideals of amateur sport in the interests of supposed expediency. Please do not regard that statement as implying the organization of an Eastern conference or even a poetic "Ivy League". That sort of thing does not seem to be in the cards at the moment."

Within a year of this statement and having held month-long discussions about the proposal, on December 3, 1936, the idea of "the formation of an Ivy League" gained enough traction among the undergraduate bodies of the universities that the would simultaneously run an editorial entitled "Now Is the Time", encouraging the seven universities to form the league in an effort to preserve the ideals of athletics:
Part of the editorial read as follows:
  • The Ivy League exists already in the minds of a good many of those connected with football, and we fail to see why the seven schools concerned should be satisfied to let it exist as a purely nebulous entity where there are so many practical benefits which would be possible under definite organized association. The seven colleges involved fall naturally together by reason of their common interests and similar general standards and by dint of their established national reputation they are in a particularly advantageous position to assume leadership for the preservation of the ideals of intercollegiate athletics.

The Ivies have been competing in sports as long as intercollegiate sports have existed in the United States. Rowing teams from Harvard and Yale met in the first sporting event held between students of two U.S. colleges on Lake Winnipesaukee, New Hampshire, on August 3, 1852. Harvard's team, "The Oneida", won the race and was presented with trophy black walnut oars from then-presidential nominee General Franklin Pierce.

The proposal to create an athletic league did not succeed. On January 11, 1937, the athletic authorities at the schools rejected the "possibility of a heptagonal league in football such as these institutions maintain in basketball, baseball and track. However, they noted that the league "has such promising possibilities that it may not be dismissed and must be the subject of further consideration."

Integration of athletic competition in the Ivy League:

The integration of athletics followed a similar pattern to the overall integration of the Ivy League's in the 19th and early 20th century. There was no active policy that would discriminate against incorporating Black student athletes into the athletic coalition.

Harvard has the earliest record of breaking the color barrier in athletics after recruiting William Henry Lewis to their football team in 1892. Dartmouth followed suit, with Black athletes integrating onto their football teams in 1904. Brown integrated their football team shortly after, in 1916. Cornell would follow suit in 1937.

​Penn had black students on their track and field team as early as 1903 (John Baxter Taylor, Jr., the first black athlete in the U.S. to win a gold medal in the Olympics) and a black student was named captain of the track team in 1918. Columbia's track and field team would be integrated in 1934. Basketball would become integrated at Yale in 1926, at Princeton in 1947.

Post-World War II:

In 1945 the presidents of the eight schools signed the first Ivy Group Agreement, which set academic, financial, and athletic standards for the football teams. The principles established reiterated those put forward in the Harvard-Yale-Princeton presidents' Agreement of 1916.

The Ivy Group Agreement established the core tenet that an applicant's ability to play on a team would not influence admissions decisions: The members of the Group reaffirm their prohibition of athletic scholarships. Athletes shall be admitted as students and awarded financial aid only on the basis of the same academic standards and economic need as are applied to all other students.

In 1954, the presidents extended the Ivy Group Agreement to all intercollegiate sports, effective with the 1955–56 basketball season. This is generally reckoned as the formal formation of the Ivy League.

As part of the transition, Brown, the only Ivy that had not joined the EIBL, did so for the 1954–55 season. A year later, the Ivy League absorbed the EIBL. The Ivy League claims the EIBL's history as its own. Through the EIBL, it is the oldest basketball conference in Division.

​As late as the 1960s many of the Ivy League universities' undergraduate programs remained open only to men, with Cornell the only one to have been coeducational from its founding (1865) and Columbia being the last (1983) to become coeducational.

Before they became coeducational, many of the Ivy schools maintained extensive social ties with nearby Seven Sisters women's colleges, including weekend visits, dances and parties inviting Ivy and Seven Sisters students to mingle. This was the case not only at Barnard College and Radcliffe College, which are adjacent to Columbia and Harvard, but at more distant institutions as well.

The movie Animal House includes a satiric version of the formerly common visits by Dartmouth men to Massachusetts to meet Smith and Mount Holyoke women, a drive of more than two hours. As noted by Irene Harwarth, Mindi Maline, and Elizabeth DeBra, "The 'Seven Sisters' was the name given to:
  1. Barnard,
  2. Smith,
  3. Mount Holyoke, 
  4. Vassar, 
  5. Bryn Mawr, 
  6. Wellesley,
  7. and Radcliffe,
because of their parallel to the Ivy League men's colleges."

In 1982 the Ivy League considered adding two members, with Army, Navy, and Northwestern as the most likely candidates; if it had done so, the league could probably have avoided being moved into the recently created Division I-AA (now Division I FCS) for football. 

​In 1983, following the admission of women to Columbia College, Columbia University and Barnard College entered into an athletic consortium agreement by which students from both schools compete together on Columbia University women's athletic teams, which replaced the women's teams previously sponsored by Barnard.

​When Army and Navy departed the Eastern Intercollegiate Baseball League in 1992, nearly all intercollegiate competition involving the eight schools became united under the Ivy League banner.

The major exception is hockey, with the Ivies that sponsor hockey—all except Penn and Columbia—members of ECAC Hockey. Wrestling was a second exception through the 2023-24 academic calendar; up until that point the Ivies that sponsor wrestling—all except Dartmouth and Yale— were members of the Eastern Intercollegiate Wrestling Association.

The Ivy League was the first athletic conference to respond to the COVID-19 pandemic by shutting down all athletic competition in March 2020, leaving many Spring schedules unfinished. The Fall 2020 schedule was canceled in July, and winter sports were canceled before Thanksgiving. 

Of the 357 men's basketball teams in Division I, only ten did not play; the Ivy League made up eight of those ten. By giving up its automatic qualifying bid to March Madness, the Ivy League forfeited at least $280,000 in NCAA basketball funds. As a consequence of the pandemic, an unprecedented number of student athletes in the Ivy League either transferred to other schools, or temporarily unenrolled in hopes of maintaining their eligibility to play post-pandemic. 

Some Ivy alumni expressed displeasure with the League's position. In February 2021 it was reported that Yale declined a multi-million dollar offer from alum Joseph Tsai to create a sequestered "bubble" for the lacrosse team. The league announced in a May 2021 joint statement that "regular athletic competition" would resume "across all sports" in fall 2021.

Following the Black Lives Matter protests in 2020, the Ivy League Conference committed itself to uphold "diversity, equity, and inclusion," to combat racism and homophobia. At Brown, Columbia, Cornell, Dartmouth, Harvard, and Princeton there are Black Student Athlete groups and other affinity groups that are dedicated to ensuring their organizations are committed to anti-racism and anti-homophobia. 

In 2023, two former Brown University basketball players sued the Ivy League alleging that by denying athletic scholarships, the 1954 "Ivy League Agreement" is anticompetititive and violates antitrust laws. The lawsuit claims that the agreement constitutes price-fixing in violation of the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890, and in effect raises the cost of Ivy League education for student athletes.


Academics
The Ivy League schools are highly selective, with all schools reporting acceptance rates at or below approximately 10% at all of the universities. For the class of 2025, six of the eight schools reported acceptance rates below 6%. Admitted students come from around the world, although those from the Northeastern United States make up a significant proportion of students.

In 2021, all eight Ivy League schools recorded record high numbers of applications and record low acceptance rates. Year over year increases in the number of applicants ranged from a 14.5% increase at Princeton to a 51% increase at Columbia.

There have been arguments that Ivy League schools discriminate against Asian-American candidates. For example, in August 2020, the US Justice Department argued that Yale University discriminated against Asian-American candidates on the basis of their race, a charge the university denied. 

Harvard was subject to a similar challenge in 2019 from an Asian American student group, with regard to which a federal judge found Harvard to be in compliance with constitutional requirements. The student group has since appealed that decision, and the appeal is still pending as of August 2020.


Prestige:
See also: List of Nobel laureates by university affiliation
​
Members of the League have been highly ranked by various university rankings. All of the Ivy League schools are consistently ranked within the top 20 national universities by the U.S. News & World Report Best Colleges Ranking.
​Collaboration:

Collaboration between the member schools is illustrated by the student-led Ivy Council that meets in the fall and spring of each year, with representatives from every Ivy League school.

The governing body of the Ivy League is the Council of Ivy Group presidents, composed of each university president. During meetings, the presidents discuss common procedures and initiatives for their universities.

The universities collaborate academically through the IvyPlus Exchange Scholar Program, which allows students to cross-register at one of the Ivies or another eligible school such as Berkeley, Chicago, MIT, and Stanford.


History of diversity:

Racial segregation and integration:

Ivy League institutions have a complex history of racial segregation, and, eventually, integration. All of the universities in the Ivy League besides Cornell University were chartered during the American era of slavery. In 2003, Brown University was the first of the Ivies to take accountability for their historic ties to slavery and the transatlantic slave trade. 

Following Brown, other Ivy League universities formed committees to examine their ties to slavery, and found various institutional relationships to slavery. Yale University, for example, used profits from slave traders and owners to fund its first scholarships, libraries, and faculty positions. 

To date, some of Yale's residential colleges are named after slave traders and supporters.[ The investigations at Harvard, Princeton, Columbia, and the University of Pennsylvania all found that, in the century following their charters, enslaved Black people lived on campus to care for students, professors, or the universities' presidents.

Notably, Princeton's first nine presidents were slave owners, and in 1766, a slave auction reportedly took place on Princeton's campus.

A small number of Black people did attend Ivy League institutions as students during their early years. These early students, however, were not always granted degrees. For example, some Black students were recorded studying privately with the Princeton University president as early as 1774, but no Black students received Princeton degrees until the middle of the twentieth century. 

Jonathan and Philip Gayienquitioga, two brothers of the Mohawk People, were the first people of color to enroll at Penn in 1755 after being recruited by Benjamin Franklin to attend the Academy of Philadelphia (then part of Penn), but there is no evidence that either earned a degree, as the first native American to graduate Penn did not occur until 1847, when Robert Daniel Ross (a member of the Cherokee Nation) graduated with a degree from Penn's medical school.

19th and early 20th centuries:

In 1900, W. E. B. Du Bois oversaw and edited The College-bred Negro. a study on Black integration in colleges and universities that found a combined total of 52 Black students had graduated from Ivy League schools in their collective histories.

Since no official policies prohibited schools in the Ivy League from admitting students of color each university in the League had different policies regarding the admission of Black students.

Dartmouth's first Black student graduated in 1828, while Princeton would only admit their first Black student under the V-12 Navy College Training Program in the 1940s.

Early Black student admits to Ivy League universities were controversial and often faced backlash. Dartmouth initially denied its first Black graduate, Edward Mitchell, supposedly to avoid "offend[ing] students".

Dartmouth students protested this decision, leading to Mitchell's admission in 1824. Richard Henry Green was awarded an MD degree by Dartmouth College in 1864.
Harvard admitted its first Black student, Beverly Garnett Williams, in 1847.

News of his admission incited protests by Harvard students and faculty. Williams died before the academic year began, however, and never matriculated. Richard Theodore Greener was the first African American to receive a Harvard degree in 1870. 

Between 1890 and 1940, an average of three Black men enrolled at Harvard per year. In 1923, Harvard's Board of Overseers overruled University President Abbot Lawrence's ban on Black students living in dorms, announcing that all freshmen would be permitted to live in dorms regardless of race, but upheld that “men of the white and colored races shall not be compelled to live and eat together." 

Brown seems to have refused admission to Black students outright prior to the Civil War. Abolitionist Elizabeth Buffum Chase wrote in her book Anti Slavery Reminiscences about "a lad of rare excellence and attainments [who] was refused an examination for admission by the authorities of Brown University on account of the color of his skin." Inman Page was the first Black student to graduate from Brown in 1877, and was class speaker.

William Adger, James Brister, and Nathan Francis Mossell were the first Black students enrolled at Penn in 1879. Brister graduated from the School of Dental Medicine (Penn Dental) in 1881 as the first African American to earn a degree from Penn, while Adger was the first African American to graduate from the college in 1883.

Columbia University has claimed that four Black students earned University degrees between 1875 and 1900, though their names are apparently unknown.

Yale's Edward Bouchet, was the first Black person to (a) being elected to Phi Beta Kappa in the US in 1874 and (b) to earn a Ph.D. from any American university, completing his dissertation in physics in 1876. 

Bouchet was thought to have been the first African-American graduate of Yale, but research publicized in 2014 reported that Yale awarded a Black man, Richard Henry Green, a bachelor of arts degree in 1857.

Cornell seemed the most inclusive of the Ivy Leagues at its inception, with admission open to any race and gender. University co-founder Andrew Dickson White wrote in 1874 that the school had "no colored students...at present but shall be very glad to receive any who are prepared to enter...if even one offered himself and passed the examinations, we should receive him even if all our five hundred white students were to ask for dismissal on that account." 

In 1890, Charles Chauveau Cook and Jane Eleanor Datcher were the first Black students awarded four-year undergraduate Cornell degrees. Despite this, Black students faced legal and social segregation in the town of Ithaca, New York. In 1905, Black students reported being denied housing while attending Cornell.

Princeton University, sometimes referred to as the "Southern-most Ivy", was the last to integrate. In Du Bois' The College-bred Negro (1900), a Princeton representative is quoted: "We have never had any colored students here, though there is nothing in the University statutes to prevent their admission. It is possible, however, in view of our proximity to the South and the large number of southern students here, that Negro students would find Princeton less comfortable than some other institutions." 

Notably, in 1939, Princeton revoked admittance to Black student Bruce Wright upon his arrival on campus, when Director of Admission Radcliffe Heermance noticed Wright's race. 

When a disappointed Wright wrote Heermance requesting an explanation, Heermance responded: "I cannot conscientiously advise a colored student to apply for admission to Princeton simply because I do not think that he would be happy in this environment. There are no colored students in the University and a member of your race might feel very much alone...My personal experience would enforce my advice to any colored student that he would be happier in an environment of others of his race, and that he would adjust himself far more easily to the life of a New England college or university, or one of the large state universities than he would to a residential college of this particular type."

The few early Black students admitted to Ivy League universities were often from wealthy Caribbean families. Barriers preventing African American students from attending Ivy League universities included the universities' policies, poor recruitment, tuition costs, and the lack of secondary education opportunities in a racially segregated country. 

More Black students attended Ivy League graduate and professional schools than their undergraduate programs. By the middle of the 20th century, only 54 Black men and women had graduated with a Bachelor degree from Ivy League universities.

Late 20th century:

By the middle of the 20th century, some Ivy League students and alumni were advocating for increased racial integration efforts. These efforts were met with mixed reactions from the schools themselves. 

Without a goal for integration shared by the institutions as a collective, each school increased racial diversity at different rates, with Dartmouth having 120 Black undergraduates in the class of 1945 and Princeton having a cumulative total of fewer than 100 Black undergraduates by 1967.

The V-12 Navy College Training Program in 1942 effectively forced all eight Ivy institutions to increase Black student enrollment. At Princeton University, the Black students in this program were the first ever granted bachelor's degrees by the University.

The 1954 Supreme Court decision in Brown v. Board of Education did not require private universities like those in the Ivy League to abide by the ruling. It wasn't until the Court's 1976 decision in Runyon v. McCrary that private institutions became legally prohibited from discriminating on the basis of race. 

By the early 1960s, however, some admissions offices in the Ivy League began to make concerted efforts to increase their number of Black applicants, rolling out initiatives that actively sought Black talent from high schools. 

Efforts for racial integration at Ivy League institutions relied on the support of student organizations, faculty-led initiatives, and third-party organizations like the National Scholarship Service and Fund for Negro Students to seek prospective Black applicants.

These efforts also prompted internal University action, such as the creation of Cornell's Committee on Special Educational Projects (COSEP), an organization aimed to recruit and support Black students. By 1965, however, Black students still were only 2% of admitted students across all the Ivies.

Prior to the 1960s, the majority of Ivy League universities explicitly prohibited the admission of women, instead forming partnerships with nearby women's colleges. As such, Black women were not able to attend Ivy League universities until they changed their policies. 

Lillian Lincoln Lambert was the first Black woman to receive a degree from Harvard University after graduating with a master's degree from Harvard Business School in 1969. 

Lincoln Lambert was also a founding member of Harvard's African American Student Union, which according to her, actively recruited Black students and created "a space where Black students could find not only support but resources for everything from barber shops that cut Black hair to churches."

As Black student populations grew at Ivy League schools, on-campus activism saw an increase during the civil rights movement. In 1969, students in Cornell's Afro-American Society led an armed occupation of Willard Straight Hall to protest the university's racist policies and “its slow progress in establishing a Black studies program.” 

In the same year, students associated with Yale's New Left organization, Students for a Democratic Society, worked closely with the New Haven Black Panthers to lead sit-ins and protests that advocated for the admission of more students of color and the establishment of an African American studies department.

At Brown University, identity-based student organizations such as the United African People and the African American Society called for an increase to the number of Black faculty and increased attention to the needs of Black students. 

Demonstrations at Harvard and Columbia took the form of occupations and non-violent sit-ins that were often subject to forceful removal by local police called by University administrators. 

Activism at Dartmouth took a different shape during this time period, as students would use demonstrations that were happening at other Ivies and colleges around the country, to effectively position their demands for progress within the prospect of taking actions similar to those happening elsewhere.

21st century:

Continuing the trajectory of the late 20th century, the number of Black students on Ivy League campuses has continued to increase in the 21st century.

From 2006 to 2018, there was an approximated 50% increase in the admission of Black students into entering classes, growing from 1,110 to 1,663. 

As of 2018, the Ivy League universities unanimously supported Harvard University's “race-conscious admissions” model. Harvard University representatives credited this form of affirmative action as one of the factors increasing campus diversity.

In 2014 case Schuette v. Coalition to Defend Affirmative Action, 572 U.S. 291 (2014) — the Supreme Court upheld Michigan's ban on affirmative action for public institutions and in 2016 in Fisher v. University of Texas II, No. 14-981, 579 U.S. ___ (2016) the court upheld the university's limited use of race in admissions decisions because the university showed it had a clear goal of limited scope without other workable race-neutral means to achieve it.

However, in 2023 — Students for Fair Admissions v. President and Fellows of Harvard College, No. 20-1199, 600 U.S. ___ (2023) the United States Supreme Court overruled the decades old decisionsRegents of University of California v. Bakke and Grutter v. Bollinger and other cases mentioned above in this paragraph but disallowing non-individualized racial preferences in admissions for civilian universities.

In essence, the court interpreted the Fourteenth Amendment as not permitting Harvard's “race-conscious admissions” as the court decision now forbids the consideration of race in higher education admissions.

Institutions in favor of Harvard's model argue that in addition to academic excellence they also aim to form a diverse student body, while individuals that argue against the model state that it is discriminatory against certain applicants.

The growing Black student population in Ivy League universities in the early 2000s was accompanied by an increase in the number of Black faculty at these institutions, though rates of change among faculty have been slower and inconsistent. In 2005, 588– or about 3.9%– of the Ivies' 14,831 full-time faculty members were Black. 

This proportion decreased to 3.4% in 2015. Notably, in 2001, Ruth J. Simmons became the president of Brown University, making her the first and only Black president of an Ivy League institution.

The 21st century saw the continuation of demonstrations by Ivy League students revolving around race. Many of these demonstrations have sought to continue the work of their 20th century predecessors by advocating for increased admission and support of Black students.

In light of the Students for Fair Admissions v. President and Fellows of Harvard College Supreme Court case, students from Yale and Harvard joined other universities in protesting in defense of race-conscious admissions policies.

Likewise, Black students from Ivy League institutions continue to protest for the betterment of Black students' lives on campus and beyond. Following Michael Brown's death in 2014, students across the Ivies formed the Black Ivy Coalition, which included members from all eight institutions and aimed to combat anti-Black racism. 

Individual Ivy League universities also formed their own advocacy organizations and movements as a direct response to instances of anti-Black violence. After the murder of Michael Brown, Princeton University students formed the Black Justice League, which in 2015, occupied Nassau Hall and presented a list of demands to university administrators. 

Similarly, in 2017, Cornell students made demands to their administration protesting the assault of a Black student. Led by Black Students United, the demands included banning the Psi Upsilon fraternity for hate crimes, implementing implicit bias training, and introducing policies to increase the number of Black students at the university.

Student demonstrations have also focused on sparking change beyond Ivy League campuses.

Following the Black Lives Matter protests in 2020, Harvard's Black Law Students Association, beyond calling for more Black faculty, critical race theory curriculum, and protection for student protestors, also called on the university to divest from prisons and denounce state-sanctioned violence.

In response to racially charged incidents across the country and prompting from student activists, Ivy League universities have removed and renamed campus landmarks. In response to the 2016 Black Lives Matter protests, Cornell renamed their botanical gardens, previously called the "Cornell Plantations," to the "Cornell Botanical Gardens." 

In 2018, Brown renamed one of its largest academic and administrative buildings after its first black graduates, Inman E. Page and Ethel Tremaine Robinson. 

In response to the murder of George Floyd in 2020, Princeton University removed Woodrow Wilson's name from a residential college and the School of Public and International Affairs because of his “racist thinking and policies.”


Fashion and lifestyle:
See also: Ivy League (clothes), Preppy, Take Ivy, and Ivy League (haircut)

Different fashion trends and styles have emerged from Ivy League campuses over time, and fashion trends such as Ivy League and preppy are styles often associated with the Ivy League and its culture.

Ivy League style is a style of men's dress, popular during the late 1950s, believed to have originated on Ivy League campuses. The clothing stores J. Press and Brooks Brothers represent perhaps the quintessential Ivy League dress manner. The Ivy League style is said to be the predecessor to the preppy style of dress.

Preppy fashion started around 1912 to the late 1940s and 1950s as the Ivy League style of dress. J. Press represents the quintessential preppy clothing brand, stemming from the collegiate traditions that shaped the preppy subculture. In the mid-twentieth century J. Press and Brooks Brothers, both being pioneers in preppy fashion, had stores on Ivy League school campuses, including Harvard, Yale, and Princeton.

Some typical preppy styles also reflect traditional upper class New England leisure activities, such as:
Longtime New England outdoor outfitters, such as L.L. Bean, became part of conventional preppy style. This can be seen in sport stripes and colors, equestrian clothing, plaid shirts, field jackets and nautical-themed accessories.

Vacationing in Palm Beach, Florida, long popular with the East Coast upper class, led to the emergence of bright colors combinations in leisure wear seen in some brands such as Lilly Pulitzer. 

By the 1980s, other brands such as Lacoste, Izod and Dooney & Bourke became associated with preppy style.

Though the Ivy League style is most commonly associated with the white, male elites that historically made up Ivy League campuses, the style was quickly popularized among Black communities during the civil rights era. Reinterpretations of this style by African-American men in the 1950s and 1960s combined the preppy Ivy League style with other popular Black styles of dress. This led to the emergence of a new style of dress, the Black Ivy style.

Today, Ivy League styles continue to be popular on Ivy League campuses, throughout the U.S., and abroad, and are oftentimes labeled as "Classic American style" or "Traditional American style".

Social elitism:
​​
The Ivy League is often associated with the upper class White Anglo-Saxon Protestant community of the Northeast, Old money, or more generally, the American upper middle and upper classes.

Although most Ivy League students come from upper-middle and upper-class families, the student body has become increasingly more economically and ethnically diverse.

The universities provide significant financial aid to help increase the enrollment of lower income and middle class students. Several reports suggest, however, that the proportion of students from less-affluent families remains low.

Phrases such as "Ivy League snobbery" are ubiquitous in nonfiction and fiction writing of the early and mid-twentieth century. A Louis Auchincloss character dreads "the aridity of snobbery which he knew infected the Ivy League colleges". 

A business writer, warning in 2001 against discriminatory hiring, presented a cautionary example of an attitude to avoid (the bracketed phrase is his): "We Ivy Leaguers [read: mostly white and Anglo] know that an Ivy League degree is a mark of the kind of person who is likely to succeed in this organization."

The phrase Ivy League historically has been perceived as connected not only with academic excellence but also with social elitism. In 1936, sportswriter John Kieran noted that student editors at Harvard, Yale, Columbia, Princeton, Cornell, Dartmouth, and Penn were advocating the formation of an athletic association.In urging them to consider  "Army and Navy and Georgetown and Fordham and Syracuse and Brown and Pitt" as candidates for membership, he exhorted: "It would be well for the proponents of the Ivy League to make it clear (to themselves especially) that the proposed group would be inclusive but not "exclusive" as this term is used with a slight up-tilting of the tip of the nose."

Aspects of Ivy stereotyping were illustrated during the 1988 presidential election, when George H. W. Bush (Yale '48) derided Michael Dukakis (graduate of Harvard Law School) for having "foreign-policy views born in Harvard Yard's boutique." New York Times columnist Maureen Dowd asked "Wasn't this a case of the pot calling the kettle elite?"

Bush explained, however, that, unlike Harvard, Yale's reputation was "so diffuse, there isn't a symbol, I don't think, in the Yale situation, any symbolism in it. ... Harvard boutique to me has the connotation of liberalism and elitism" and said Harvard in his remark was intended to represent "a philosophical enclave" and not a statement about class. 

Columnist Russell Baker opined that "Voters inclined to loathe and fear elite Ivy League schools rarely make fine distinctions between Yale and Harvard. All they know is that both are full of rich, fancy, stuck-up and possibly dangerous intellectuals who never sit down to supper in their undershirt no matter how hot the weather gets." 

Still, the next five consecutive presidents all attended Ivy League schools for at least part of their education--
U.S. presidents in the Ivy League:
See also: List of presidents of the United States by education
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​Of the 45 persons who have served as President of the United States, 16 have graduated from an Ivy League university. Of them, eight have degrees from Harvard, five from Yale, three from Columbia, two from Princeton and one from Penn.

Twelve presidents have earned Ivy undergraduate degrees. Four of these were transfer students: Woodrow Wilson transferred from Davidson College, Barack Obama transferred from Occidental College, Donald Trump transferred from Fordham University, and John F. Kennedy transferred from Princeton to Harvard. 

John Adams was the first president to graduate from college, graduating from Harvard in 1755:


​Student demographics:

Race and ethnicity:
​Geographic distribution:

Students of the Ivy League largely hail from the Northeast, largely from the New York City, Boston, and Philadelphia areas. As all eight Ivy League universities are within the Northeast, most graduates end up working and residing in the Northeast after graduation.

An unscientific survey of Harvard seniors from the Class of 2013 found that 42% hailed from the Northeast and 55% overall were planning on working and residing in the Northeast. 

Boston and New York City are traditionally where many Ivy League graduates end up living.


Socioeconomics and social class
Students of the Ivy League, both graduate and undergraduate, come primarily from upper middle and upper class families. In recent years, however, the universities have looked towards increasing socioeconomic and class diversity, by providing greater financial aid packages to applicants from lower, working, and lower middle class American families.

In 2013, a Harvard Crimson writer estimated that 46% of Harvard undergraduate students came from families in the top 3.8% of all American households (i.e., over $200,000 annual income). 

In 2012, the bottom 25% of the American income distribution accounted for only 3–4% of students at Brown, a figure that had remained unchanged since 1992. 

In 2014, 69% of incoming freshmen students at Yale College came from families with annual incomes of over $120,000, putting most Yale College students in the upper-middle and upper classes. (The median household income in the U.S. in 2013 was $52,700.)

In the 2011–2012 academic year, students qualifying for Pell Grants (federally funded scholarships on the basis of need) constituted:
  • 20% at Harvard,
  • 18% at Cornell,
  • 17% at Penn,
  • 16% at Columbia,
  • 15% at Dartmouth and Brown,
  • 14% at Yale,
  • and 12% at Princeton.

Nationally, 35% of American university students qualify for a Pell Grant.


Graduation rates:
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Faculty demographics:

Race and ethnicity:

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