Copyright © 2015 Bert N. Langford (Images may be subject to copyright. Please send feedback)
Welcome to Our Generation USA!

Humanitarians 
are those Individuals and Institutions dedicated to helping others in Need
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Humanitarians
​YouTube Video: The Humanitarian Principles
Pictured: Volunteers from AmeriCorps in Louisiana

Humanitarianism is an active belief in the value of human life, whereby humans practice benevolent treatment and provide assistance to other humans, in order to better humanity for moral, altruistic and logical reasons. It is the philosophical belief in movement toward the improvement of the human race in a variety of areas, used to describe a wide number of activities relating specifically to human welfare. A practitioner is known as a humanitarian.

Humanitarianism is an informal ideology of practice; it is "the doctrine that people's duty is to promote human welfare."

Humanitarianism is based on a view that all human beings deserve respect and dignity and should be treated as such. Therefore, humanitarians work towards advancing the well-being of humanity as a whole. It is the antithesis of the "us vs. them" mentality that characterizes tribalism and ethnic nationalism.

Humanitarians abhor slavery, violation of basic and human rights, and discrimination on the basis of features such as skin colour, religion, ancestry, or place of birth.

Humanitarianism drives people to save lives, alleviate suffering, and promote human dignity in the middle of man-made or natural disasters. Humanitarianism is embraced by movements and people across the political spectrum. The informal ideology can be summed up by a quote from Albert Schweitzer: "Humanitarianism consists in never sacrificing a human being to a purpose."

Jean Pictet, in his commentary on The Fundamental Principles of the Red Cross, argues for the universal characteristics of humanitarianism:

  • "The wellspring of the principle of humanity is in the essence of social morality which can be summed up in a single sentence, Whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye even so to them.
  • This fundamental precept can be found, in almost identical form, in all the great religions:
    • Brahminism,
    • Buddhism,
    • Christianity,
    • Confucianism,
    • Islam,
    • Judaism
    • and Taoism.
  • It is also the golden rule of the positivists, who do not commit themselves to any religion but only to the data of experience, in the name of reason alone. It is indeed not at all necessary to resort to effective or transcendental concepts to recognize the advantage for men to work together to improve their lot."

Historically, humanitarianism was publicly seen in the social reforms of the late 1800s and early 1900s, following the economic turmoil of the Industrial Revolution in England. Many of the women in Great Britain who were involved with feminism during the 1900s also pushed humanitarianism.

The atrocious hours and working conditions of children and unskilled laborers were made illegal by pressure on Parliament by humanitarians. The Factory Act of 1833 and the Factory Act of 1844 were some of the most significant humanitarian bills passed in Parliament following the Industrial Revolution.

In the middle of the 19th century, humanitarianism was central to the work of Florence Nightingale and Henry Dunant in emergency response and in the latter case led to the founding of the Red Cross.


Today, humanitarianism is particularly used to describe the thinking and doctrines behind emergency response to humanitarian crises. In such cases it argues for a humanitarian response based on humanitarian principles, particularly the principle of humanity. Nicholas de Torrente, Executive Director of MSF-USA writes:
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"The most important principles of humanitarian action are humanity, neutrality, independence and impartiality, which posits the conviction that all people have equal dignity by virtue of their being human based solely on need, without discrimination among recipients. Humanitarian organizations must refrain from taking part in hostilities or taking actions that advantage one side of the conflict over another, action serves the interests of political, religious, or other agendas.

"These fundamental principles serve two essential purposes. They embody humanitarian action’s single-minded purpose of alleviating suffering, unconditionally and without any ulterior motive. They also serve as background document to develop operational tools that help in obtaining both the consent of communities for the presence and activities of humanitarian organizations, particularly in highly volatile contexts."

Digital humanitarianism:
See also: Digital Humanitarian Network, Internet activism, and Relief 2.0

Patrick Meier, first started using the term 'digital humanitarianism' after crowdmapping for the 2010 Haiti earthquake.

In 2011, Paul Conneally gave a TED talk on digital humanitarianism in which he states that humanitarianism's "origins are firmly routed in the analogue age" with "a major shift coming". In 2015 he authored the book Digital Humanitarians: How Big Data Is Changing the Face of Humanitarian Response.

Vincent Fevrier notes that "social media can benefit the humanitarian sector [...] by providing information to give better situational awareness to organisations for broad strategic planning and logistics" and that "crisis mapping really emerged in 2010 during the Haiti earthquake" with "software and digital humanitarian platforms such as Standby Task Force, OpenStreetMap, and many others" being active during many disasters since then.

In fact, the role of social media in digital humanitarian efforts is a considerable one. During the summer of 2010, when open fires raged across Russia, causing many to die from smog inhalation, the use of social media allowed digital humanitarians to map the areas in need of support. This is because Russians who were hoping to be evacuated were posting online about the conditions they were in which prompted thousands of Russian bloggers to coordinate relief efforts online.

The digital humanitarian efforts in Russia were crucial to responding to the fires in 2010 considering the Russian government was vastly unprepared to deal with such a large-scale disaster.

Within digital humanitarianism, big data has featured strongly in efforts to improve digital humanitarian work and produces a limited understanding of how a crisis is unfolding. It has been argued that Big Data is constitutive of a social relation in which both the formal humanitarian sector and victims of crises are in need of the services and labor that can be provided by digital humanitarians.

Earlier in 2005, a question was raised as to whether Wikipedia can be seen as digital humanitarianism.

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Philanthropy in the United States
YouTube Video: A World Changed: 100 Years of Philanthropy by the Rockefeller Foundation

Philanthropy has played a major role in American history, from the Puritans of early Massachusetts who founded Harvard College, down to the present day. Since the late 19th century philanthropy has been a major source of income for religion, medicine and health care, fine arts and performing arts, as well as educational institutions.

For the History of Philanthropy from the Colonial era through 1899, click here.

1900 to 1980:

Prominent American philanthropists of the early 20th century were John D. Rockefeller and his son, Julius Rosenwald  and Margaret Olivia Slocum Sage.

Rockefeller network:

The senior John D. Rockefeller (1839-1937) retired from business in the 1890s; he and his son John D. Rockefeller Jr. (1874-1960) made large-scale national philanthropy systematic especially regarding the study and application of modern medicine, higher, education and scientific research.

Of the $530 million the elder Rockefeller gave away, $450 million went to medicine. Their top advisor Frederick Taylor Gates designed several very large philanthropies that were staffed by experts who designed ways to attack problems systematically rather than let the recipients decide how to deal with the problem.

One of the largest of the Rockefeller philanthropies was the General Education Board which focused on higher education medical school, and Uplift of the poverty-stricken rural South, both black and white. It funded rural schools, helped modernize farming practices, and work hard to eradicate hookworm.

It promoted the county agent system run by the U.S. Department of Agriculture that brought research from state agricultural experiment stations into actual operation on millions of farms. Rockefeller gave it $180 million starting in 1903. Its head Frederick Gates envisioned "The Country School of To-Morrow," wherein "young and old will be taught in practicable ways how to make rural life beautiful, intelligent, fruitful, recreative, healthful, and joyous." 

By 1934 the Board was making grants of $5.5 million a year. It spent nearly all its money by 1950 and closed in 1964.

Hoover in Europe:

The Commission for Relief in Belgium (CRB) was an international (predominantly American) organization that arranged for the supply of food to German-occupied Belgium and northern France during the First World War. It was led by Herbert Hoover.

Between 1914 and 1919, the CRB operated entirely with voluntary efforts and was able to feed 11,000,000 Belgians by raising the necessary money, obtaining voluntary contributions of money and food, shipping the food to Belgium and controlling its there, For example, the CRB shipped 697,116,000 pounds of flour to Belgium.

Biographer George Nash finds that by the end of 1916, Hoover "stood preeminent in the greatest humanitarian undertaking the world had ever seen." Biographer William Leuchtenburg adds, "He had raised and spent millions of dollars, with trifling overhead and not a penny lost to fraud. At its peak, his organization was feeding nine million Belgians and French a day. When the U.S. entered the war President Wilson gave Hoover charge of the American food supply.

When the war ended in late 1918, Wilson gave Hoover control of the American Relief Administration (ARA), with the mission of finding food and coal for Central and Eastern Europe. The ARA fed millions. U.S. government funding of $100 million for the ARA expired in the summer of 1919, and Hoover transformed the ARA into a private organization, raising millions of dollars from private donors. He had numerous efficient aides, such as Anson Goodyear, who handled coal supplies in Austria, Hungary and Poland. According to Kendrick Clements:

The gregarious, energetic, and ingenious Goodyear cheerfully accepted Hoover's orders to do anything necessary to get the coal moving. Employing his native charm and his authority to provide or withhold food shipments, he calmed strikes and opened borders. At one point, he got Hoover to send him $25,000 worth of tobacco to distribute among miners. Within a month, his unorthodox methods contributed to doubling coal production in Central Europe.

Under the auspices of the ARA, the European Children's Fund fed millions of starving children. When attacked for distributing food to Russia, which was under Bolshevik control, Hoover snapped, "Twenty million people are starving. Whatever their politics, they shall be fed!"

Ford Foundation:
Main article: Ford Foundation

The Ford Foundation was founded in 1936, and after the deaths of Edsel Ford and Henry Ford it was given by the family all of the non-voting shares of the Ford Motor Company. The family kept all the voting shares, which although far fewer in number, assured its continuous control of the corporation. Ford's profits, dividends, and increases in stock value went overwhelmingly to the Foundation.

In 1950 the family gave up control of the Foundation, Keeping a few seats on the board until 1976. In 1955 the Foundation sold most of its Ford shares. By then it passed the Rockefeller Foundation to become the largest philanthropy, with very large scale projects in the United States and around the world.

Domestically, it focused on inner-city revitalization, the development of public broadcasting, and support for the arts. It invested heavily in graduate training programs in American and European research universities, especially in promoting international studies.

Civil rights and aid to minority groups became a major priority after 1950. It started with an effort had building minority communities and promoting integration. However by the 1970s it had switched to a top-down strategy of training new minority leaders.

One result was the support for Black Power elements hostile to integration, such as CORE, as well as black studies programs on campuses. Another was resentment especially as Jewish leaders were pushed out of the civil rights movement by the new black generation.

Outside the United States, it established a network of human rights organizations, promoted democracy, gave large numbers of fellowships for young leaders to study in the United States.

Recent philanthropists:

The John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation has awarded more than $6 billion since its first grants in 1978. It has an endowment of $6.3 billion and provides approximately $270 million annually in grants and impact investments. It is best known for the annual MacArthur Fellows Program, often dubbed "genius grants", which makes $625,000 no-strings-attached awards annually to about two dozen creative individuals in diverse fields.

Gates and Buffett:

During the past few years, computer entrepreneur Bill Gates, who co-founded Microsoft, and billionaire investor and Berkshire Hathaway Chairman Warren Buffett have donated many billions of dollars to charity and have challenged their wealthy peers to donate half of their assets to philanthropic causes. The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation has led campaigns to eradicate malaria and river blindness, and Buffett donation $31 billion in 2006 to the Gates Foundation.

Financier Ronald Perelman signed the Gates-Buffett Pledge in August 2010, committing up to half his assets to be designated for the benefit of charitable causes (after his family and children have been provided for), and gave $70 million to charity in 2008 alone.

Phil Knight, a co-founder of Nike Corporation, and his wife Penny have given or pledged $725 million to the Oregon Health Sciences Center in Portland, Oregon for medical research since 2008, and hundreds of millions more to the University of Oregon for sports facilities.

In December 2015, Mark Zuckerberg and his spouse Priscilla Chan pledged to donate over the decades 99% of their Facebook shares, then valued at $45 billion, to the Chan Zuckerberg Initiative, their new charitable foundation with focuses on health and education.

21st century efforts:

Trends in philanthropy have been affected in various ways by a technological and cultural change. Today, many donations are made through the Internet (see also donation statistics).

The Indiana University Center on Philanthropy has reported that approximately 65% of household earning $100,000 or less donate to charity, and nearly every household exceeding that amount donated to charity. 

More particularly, according to studies by the Chronicle of Philanthropy, the rich (those making over $100,000 a year) give a smaller share, averaging 4.2%, to charity than those poorer (between $50,000 - $75,000 a year), who give an average of 7.6%.

Studies reported in The Chronicle of Philanthropy have indicated that the rich—those making over $100,000 a year—give a smaller share of their income to charity (4.2% on average) than those making $50,000–$100,000 a year.

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Humanitarian Aid including a List of Humanitarian Aid Organizations
YouTube Video: The Paradox of Humanitarian Aid by Fiona Terry TEDxRC2
​Pictured: Humanitarian aid for East Africa Drought

Click here for a List of Humanitarian aid organizations.

Humanitarian aid is material and logistic assistance to people who need help. It is usually short-term help until the long-term help by government and other institutions replaces it.

A report published by the network of European Universities on Professionalization of Humanitarian Action noted that humanitarian aid is a "fundamental expression of the universal value of solidarity between people and a moral imperative." Among the people in need belong homeless, refugees, victims of natural disasters, wars and famines.

The primary purpose of humanitarian aid is to save lives, reduce suffering and respect to human dignity. Humanitarian aid is material or logistical assistance provided for humanitarian purposes, typically in response to humanitarian crises including natural disasters and man-made disaster.

The primary objective of humanitarian aid is to save lives, alleviate suffering, and maintain human dignity. It may therefore be distinguished from development aid, which seeks to address the underlying socioeconomic factors which may have led to a crisis or emergency.

Humanitarian aid aims to bring short term relief to victims until long term relief can be provided by the government and other institutions. Humanitarian aid considers “a fundamental expression of the universal value of solidarity between people and a moral imperative”.

Humanitarian aid can come from either local or international communities. In the Philippines various departments coordinate to provide relief, but the first response usually comes for the local government unit followed by NGOs.

In reaching out to international communities, the Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) of the United Nations (UN) responsible for coordination responses to the emergency. It taps to the various members of Inter-Agency Standing Committee, whose members are responsible for providing emergency relief.

The four UN entities that have primary roles in delivering humanitarian aid are 
  1. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP),
  2. the United Nations Refugee Agency (UNHCR),
  3. the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF)
  4. and the World Food Programme (WFP).

According to The Overseas Development Institute, a London-based research establishment, whose findings were released in April 2009 in the paper 'Providing aid in insecure environments:2009 Update', the most lethal year in the history of humanitarianism was 2008, in which 122 aid workers were murdered and 260 assaulted.

Those countries deemed least safe were Somalia and Afghanistan. In 2012, Humanitarian Outcomes reports that the countries with the highest incidents were: Afghanistan, South Sudan, Syria, Pakistan and Somalia.

Click on any of the following blue hyperlinks for more about Humanitarian Aid:





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Humanitarian Principles
YouTube Video about Humanitarian Principles by EU Civil Protection & Humanitarian Aid Operations
Pictured:  A useful summary of practical Principles, Standards and Codes of Conduct for the humanitarian practitioner, this including the Core Humanitarian Standard (CHS). 

There are a number of meanings for the term humanitarian. Here humanitarian pertains to the practice of saving lives and alleviating suffering. It is usually related to emergency response (also called humanitarian response) whether in the case of a natural disaster or a man-made disaster such as war or other armed conflict. Humanitarian principles govern the way humanitarian response is carried out.

Core humanitarian principles include the following:

​Humanity:

The principle of humanity means that all humankind shall be treated humanely and equally in all circumstances by saving lives and alleviating suffering, while ensuring respect for the individual. It is the fundamental principle of humanitarian response.

Humanitarian Imperative:

The Code of Conduct for the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement and NGOs in Disaster Relief (RC/NGO Code) introduces the concept of the humanitarian imperative which expands the principle of humanity to include the right to receive and to give humanitarian assistance. It states the obligation of the international community “to provide humanitarian assistance wherever it is needed.”

Impartiality:

Provision of humanitarian assistance must be impartial and not based on nationality, race, religion, or political point of view. It must be based on need alone.

For most non-governmental humanitarian agencies (NGHAs), the principle of impartiality is unambiguous even if it is sometimes difficult to apply, especially in rapidly changing situations. However, it is no longer clear which organizations can claim to be humanitarian.

For example, companies like PADCO, a USAID subcontractor, is sometimes seen as a humanitarian NGO. However, for the UN agencies, particularly where the UN is involved in peace keeping activities as the result of a Security Council resolution, it is not clear if the UN is in position to act in an impartial manner if one of the parties is in violation of terms of the UN Charter.

Independence:

Humanitarian agencies must formulate and implement their own policies independently of government policies or actions.

Problems may arise because most NGHAs rely in varying degrees on government donors. Thus for some organizations it is difficult to maintain independence from their donors and not be confused in the field with governments who may be involved in the hostilities.

The ICRC has set the example for maintaining its independence (and neutrality) by raising its funds from governments through the use of separate annual appeals for headquarters costs and field operations.

Defining principles:

The core principles are defining characteristics, the necessary conditions for humanitarian response. Organizations such as military forces and for-profit companies may deliver assistance to communities affected by disaster in order to save lives and alleviate suffering, but they are not considered by the humanitarian sector as humanitarian agencies as their response is not based on the core principles.

Additional humanitarian principles:

​In addition to the core principles, there are other principles that govern humanitarian response for specific types of humanitarian agencies such as UN agencies, the Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, and NGOs.

Neutrality:

The International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement follows, in addition to the above core principles, the principle of neutrality. For the Red Cross, neutrality means not to take sides in hostilities or engage at any time in controversies of a political, racial, religious or ideological nature.

The principle of neutrality was specifically addressed to the Red Cross Movement to prevent it from not only taking sides in a conflict, but not to “engage at any time in controversies of a political, racial, religious or ideological nature.”

The principle of neutrality was left out of the Red Cross/NGO code because some of the NGHAs, while committed to giving impartial assistance, were not ready to forgo their lobbying on justice issues related to political and ideological questions.

United Nations General Assembly Resolution 46/182 lists the principle of neutrality, alongside the principles of humanity and impartiality in its annex as a guide to the provision of humanitarian assistance. The resolution is designed to strengthen human response of the UN system, and it clearly applies to the UN agencies.

Neutrality can also apply to humanitarian actions of a state. “Neutrality remains closely linked with the definition which introduced the concept into international law to designate the status of a State which decided to stand apart from an armed conflict. Consequently, its applications under positive law still depend on the criteria of abstention and impartiality which have characterized neutrality from the outset.”

The application of the word neutrality to humanitarian aid delivered by UN agencies or even governments can be confusing. GA Resolution 46/182 proclaims the principle of neutrality, yet as an inter-governmental political organization, the UN is often engaged in controversies of a political nature. According to this interpretation, the UN agency or a government can provide neutral humanitarian aid as long as it does it impartially, based upon need alone.

Today, the word neutrality is widely used within the humanitarian community, usually to mean the provision of humanitarian aid in an impartial and independent manner, based on need alone. Few international NGOs have curtailed work on justice or human rights issues because of their commitment to neutrality.

Proselytism:

The provision of aid must not exploit the vulnerability of victims and be used to further political or religious creeds. All of the major non-governmental humanitarian agencies (NGHAs) by signing up to the RC/NGO Code of Conduct have committed themselves not to use humanitarian response to further political or religious creeds.

Principles based on field experience in emergencies:

All of the above principles are important requirements for effective field operations. They are based on widespread field experience of agencies engaged in humanitarian response. In conflict situations, their breach may drastically affect the ability of agencies to respond to the needs of the victims.

If a warring party believes, for example, that an agency is favoring the other side, or that it is an agent of the enemy, access to the victims may be blocked and the lives of humanitarian workers may be put in danger. If one of the parties perceives that an agency is trying to spread another religious faith, there may be a hostile reaction to their activities.

Sources:

The core principles, found in the Red Cross/NGO Code of Conduct and in GA Resolution 46/182 are derived from the Fundamental Principles of the Red Cross, particularly principles I (humanity), II (impartiality), III (neutrality—in the case of the UN), and IV (independence).

Humanitarian Accountability:

Accountability has been defined as: “the processes through which an organisation makes a commitment to respond to and balance the needs of stakeholders in its decision making processes and activities, and delivers against this commitment.” Humanitarian Accountability Partnership International adds: “Accountability is about using power responsibly.”

Article 9 of the Code of Conduct for the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement and NGOs in Disaster Relief states: “We hold ourselves accountable to both those we seek to assist and those from whom we accept resources;” and thus identifies the two major stake holders: donors and beneficiaries. However, traditionally humanitarian agencies have tended to practice mainly “upward accountability”, i.e. to their donors.
The experience of many humanitarian agencies during the Rwandan Genocide, led to a number of initiatives designed to improve humanitarian assistance and accountability, particularly with respect to the beneficiaries.

Examples include the Sphere Project, ALNAP , Compas, the People In Aid Code of Good Practice, and the Humanitarian Accountability Partnership International, which runs a “global quality insurance scheme for humanitarian agencies."

Additional Principles:

​The RC/NGO Code also lists a number of more aspirational principles which are derived from experience with development assistance.
  • Agencies should operate with respect to culture and custom
  • Humanitarian response should use local resources and capacities as much as possible
  • The participation of the beneficiaries should be encouraged
  • Emergency response should strive to reduce future vulnerabilities
  • Agencies should be accountable to both donors and beneficiaries
  • Humanitarian agencies should use information activities to portray victims as dignified human beings, not hopeless objects

The right to life with dignity:

The Sphere Project Humanitarian Charter uses the language of human rights to remind that the right to life which is proclaimed in both the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Convention on Civil and Political Rights is related to human dignity.

Vulnerability and behavioral issues:

​Humanitarian principles are mainly focused on the behavior of organizations. However a humane response implies that humanitarian workers are not to take advantage of the vulnerabilities of those affected by war and violence. Agencies have the responsibility for developing rules of staff conduct which prevent abuse of the beneficiaries.

Sexual exploitation and abuse:

One of the most problematic areas is related to the issue of sexual exploitation and abuse of beneficiaries by humanitarian workers. In an emergency where victims have lost everything, women and girls are particularly vulnerable to sexual abuse.

A number of reports which identified the sexual exploitation of refugees in west Africa prodded the humanitarian community to work together in examining the problem and to take measures to prevent abuses. In July 2002, the UN’s Interagency Standing Committee (IASC) adopted a plan of action which stated: Sexual exploitation and abuse by humanitarian workers constitute acts of gross misconduct and are therefore grounds for termination of employment.

​The plan explicitly prohibited the “Exchange of money, employment, goods, or services for sex, including sexual favours or other forms of humiliating, degrading or exploitative behaviour” The major NGHAs as well the UN agencies engaged in humanitarian response committed themselves to setting up internal structures to prevent sexual exploitation and abuse of beneficiaries.

Compliance:

Substantial efforts have been made in the humanitarian sector to monitor compliance with humanitarian principles. Such efforts include The People In Aid Code of Good Practice, an internationally recognised management tool that helps humanitarian and development organisations enhance the quality of their human resources management.

The NGO, Humanitarian Accountability Partnership International, is also working to make humanitarian organizations more accountable, especially to the beneficiaries.
Structures internal to the Red Cross Movement monitor compliance to the Fundamental Principles of the Red Cross.

The RC/NGO Code is self-enforcing. The SCHR carries out peer reviews among its members which look in part at the issue of compliance with principles set out in the RC/NGO Code.


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​Jimmy Carter and Habitat for Humanity
YouTube Video: A Message from President Jimmy Carter about Habitat for Humanity of Greater Portland
​Pictured below: (L) Jimmy Carter, (C) Habitat for Humanity Logo, (R) Volunteer Workers

James Earl "Jimmy" Carter Jr. (born October 1, 1924) is an American politician and author who served as the 39th President of the United States from 1977 to 1981. In 2002, he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his work with the Carter Center.

Carter, a Democrat raised in rural Georgia, was a peanut farmer who served two terms as a Georgia State Senator, from 1963 to 1967, and one as the Governor of Georgia, from 1971 to 1975. He was elected President in 1976, defeating incumbent President Gerald Ford in a relatively close election; the Electoral College margin of 57 votes was the closest at that time since 1916.

On his second day in office, Carter pardoned all evaders of the Vietnam War drafts. During Carter's term as President, two new cabinet-level departments, the Department of Energy and the Department of Education were established.

He established a national energy policy that included conservation, price control, and new technology.

In foreign affairs, Carter pursued the Camp David Accords, the Panama Canal Treaties, the second round of Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT II), and the return of the Panama Canal Zone to Panama.

On the economic front he confronted persistent "stagflation", a combination of high inflation, high unemployment and slow growth.

The end of his presidential tenure was marked by the 1979–1981 Iran hostage crisis, the 1979 energy crisis, the Three Mile Island nuclear accident, and the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan.

In response to the Soviet move he ended détente, escalated the Cold War, and led the international boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow.

By 1980, Carter's popularity had eroded such that, running for re-election that year, he was challenged by Senator Ted Kennedy in the Democratic Party's primaries for the presidential nomination, marking the most recent Democratic primary in which an incumbent faced serious opposition.

Carter won the 1980 primary with 51.13% of the vote (all incumbent candidates since have won at least 72.8% of their party's primary votes) but lost the general election in an electoral landslide to Republican nominee Ronald Reagan, who won 44 of 50 states.

His presidency has drawn medium-low responses from historians, with many considering him to have accomplished more with his post-presidency work.

He set up the Carter Center in 1982 as his base for advancing human rights. He has also traveled extensively to conduct peace negotiations, observe elections, and advance disease prevention and eradication in developing nations.

Additionally, Carter is a key figure in the Habitat for Humanity project. Regarding current political views, he has criticized some of Israel's actions and policies in regards to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict.

With his 35-year post-presidency, Carter is the longest-retired president in American history, breaking the record previously held by Herbert Hoover in 2012.

In August 2015, at age 90, Carter was diagnosed with melanoma which had metastasized to his liver and brain, and he began treatment which included surgery, immunotherapy, and radiation. Less than four months later, on December 6, 2015, Carter, now 91, said that he was cancer-free, and on March 7, 2016, he concluded his cancer treatment.

Click here for more about Jimmy Carter.
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Habitat for Humanity
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Habitat for Humanity International (HFHI), generally referred to as Habitat for Humanity or simply Habitat, is an international, non-governmental, and nonprofit organization, which was founded in 1976. 

Habitat has been devoted to building "simple, decent, and affordable" housing, a self-described "Christian housing ministry," and has addressed the issues of poverty housing all over the world. The international operational headquarters are located in Americus, Georgia, United States, with the administrative headquarters located in Atlanta.

There are five area offices located around the world: United States and Canada; Africa and the Middle East (located in Pretoria, South Africa); Asia-Pacific (Manila, Philippines); Europe and Central Asia (Bratislava, Slovakia); and Latin America and the Caribbean (San Jose, Costa Rica).

Community-level Habitat offices act in partnership with and on behalf of Habitat for Humanity International. In the United States, these local offices are called Habitat affiliates; outside the United States, Habitat operations are managed by national offices.

Each affiliate and national office is an independently run, nonprofit organization. Affiliates and national offices coordinate all aspects of Habitat home building in their local area, including fundraising, building site selection, partner family selection and support, house construction, and mortgage servicing.

The mission statement of Habitat for Humanity is "Seeking to put God’s love into action, Habitat for Humanity brings people together to build homes, communities and hope".

Homes are built using volunteer labor and Habitat makes no profit on the sales. In some locations outside the United States, Habitat for Humanity charges interest to protect against inflation. This policy has been in place since 1986. Habitat has helped more than 4 million people construct, rehabilitate or preserve more than 800,000 homes since its founding in 1976, making Habitat the largest not-for-profit builder in the world.

Click on any of the following blue  hyperlinks for more about Habitat for Humanity:
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​Human Rights including Universal Declaration by the United Nations
YouTube Video: What are the basic universal human rights? by Benedetta Berti of Ted Ed
Pictured: United Nations Web Page about Universal Human Rights

Human rights are moral principles or norms that describe certain standards of human behavior, and are regularly protected as legal rights in municipal and international law. 

They are commonly understood as inalienable fundamental rights "to which a person is inherently entitled simply because she or he is a human being," and which are "inherent in all human beings" regardless of their nation, location, language, religion, ethnic origin or any other status. 

They are applicable everywhere and at every time in the sense of being universal, and they are egalitarian in the sense of being the same for everyone. They are regarded as requiring empathy and the rule of law and imposing an obligation on persons to respect the human rights of others, and it is generally considered that they should not be taken away except as a result of due process based on specific circumstances; for example, human rights may include freedom from unlawful imprisonment, torture and execution.

The doctrine of human rights has been highly influential within international law, global and regional institutions. Actions by states and non-governmental organizations form a basis of public policy worldwide.

​The idea of human rights suggests that "if the public discourse of peacetime global society can be said to have a common moral language, it is that of human rights." The strong claims made by the doctrine of human rights continue to provoke considerable scepticism and debates about the content, nature and justifications of human rights to this day.

The precise meaning of the term right is controversial and is the subject of continued philosophical debate; while there is consensus that human rights encompasses a wide variety of rights such as the right to a fair trial, protection against enslavement, prohibition of genocide, free speech, or a right to education, there is disagreement about which of these particular rights should be included within the general framework of human rights; some thinkers suggest that human rights should be a minimum requirement to avoid the worst-case abuses, while others see it as a higher standard.

Many of the basic ideas that animated the human rights movement developed in the aftermath of the Second World War and the events of The Holocaust, culminating in the adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Paris by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948.

Ancient peoples did not have the same modern-day conception of universal human rights. The true forerunner of human rights discourse was the concept of natural rights which appeared as part of the medieval natural law tradition that became prominent during the European Enlightenment with such philosophers as John Locke, Francis Hutcheson and Jean-Jacques Burlamaqui, and which featured prominently in the political discourse of the American Revolution and the French Revolution.

From this foundation, the modern human rights arguments emerged over the latter half of the 20th century, possibly as a reaction to slavery, torture, genocide and war crimes, as a realization of inherent human vulnerability and as being a precondition for the possibility of a just society.

​"Whereas recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world...
— 1st sentence of the Preamble to the Universal Declaration of Human RightsAll human

beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
— Article 1 of the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR)

Click on any of the following blue hyperlinks for more about Human Rights:






​

The Peace Corps
YouTube Video by President John F. Kennedy: "Ask Not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country."
Pictured below: countries who have been aided by volunteers from the Peace Corps

​The Peace Corps is a volunteer program run by the United States government. The stated mission of the Peace Corps includes providing technical assistance, helping people outside the United States to understand American culture, and helping Americans to understand the cultures of other countries.

The work is generally related to social and economic development. Each program participant, a Peace Corps Volunteer, is an American citizen, typically with a college degree, who works abroad for a period of two years after three months of training.

Volunteers work with governments, schools, non-profit organizations, non-government organizations, and entrepreneurs in education, business, information technology, agriculture, and the environment. After 24 months of service, volunteers can request an extension of service.

The program was established by Executive Order 10924, issued by President John F. Kennedy on March 1, 1961, announced by televised broadcast March 2, 1961, and authorized by Congress on September 21, 1961, with passage of the Peace Corps Act (Pub.L. 87–293). The act declares the program's purpose as follows:

To promote world peace and friendship through a Peace Corps, which shall make available to interested countries and areas men and women of the United States qualified for service abroad and willing to serve, under conditions of hardship if necessary, to help the peoples of such countries and areas in meeting their needs for trained manpower.

From 1961 to 2015, nearly 220,000 Americans have joined the Peace Corps and served in 141 countries. The Peace Corps shows "the willingness of Americans to work at the grassroots level in order to help underdeveloped countries meet their needs". The Peace Corps has affected the way people of other countries view Americans, how Americans view other countries, and how Americans view their own country.

Click on any of the following blue hyperlinks for more about the Peace Corps:







Charitable Organizations, including a List of the Wealthiest Charitable Foundations
YouTube Video: Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation: Giving A Fortune Away by CBS News
Pictured below: Logo for National Christian Charitable Foundation Inc.


​Click here for a List of the Wealthiest Charitable Foundations.

A charitable organization or a charity is a non-profit organization (NPO) whose primary objectives are philanthropy and social well-being (e.g. charitable, educational, religious, or other activities serving the public interest or common good).

The legal definition of a charitable organisation (and of charity) varies between countries and in some instances regions of the country. The regulation, the tax treatment, and the way in which charity law affects charitable organizations also vary.

Financial figures (e.g. tax refund, revenue from fundraising, revenue from sale of goods and services or revenue from investment) are important indicators to assess the financial sustainability of a charity, especially to charity evaluators. This information can impact a charity's reputation with donors and societies, and thus the charity's financial gains.
​
Charitable organisations often depend partly on donations from businesses. Such donations to charitable organisations represent a major form of corporate philanthropy.

Click on any of the following blue hyperlinks for more about Charitable Organizations:
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Core Humanitarian Standard on Quality and Accountability (CHS)
YouTube Video: Introduction to the Core Humanitarian Standard (CHS)
Pictured below: The Core Humanitarian Standard (CHS)

The Core Humanitarian Standard on Quality and Accountability (CHS) sets out nine commitments for humanitarian and development actors to measure and improve the quality and effectiveness of their assistance. The CHS places communities and people affected by crisis at the centre of humanitarian action. Humanitarian organisations may use it as a voluntary code with which to align their own internal procedures. It can also be used as a basis for verification of performance.

The CHS was launched on 12 December 2014 in Copenhagen, Denmark as the result of a global consultation process involving 2,000 humanitarian and development practitioners. It draws together key elements of existing humanitarian standards and commitments. The founders and copyright holders of the CHS are Groupe URD, Sphere and the CHS Alliance.

Background:


The Core Humanitarian Standard (CHS) describes the essential elements of principled, accountable and high-quality humanitarian action. Humanitarian organisations may use it as a voluntary code with which to align their own internal procedures. It can also be used as a basis for verification of performance.

The CHS is the result of a 12-month, three-stage consultation facilitated by Humanitarian Accountability Partnership International (HAP), People In Aid and the Sphere Project, during which many hundreds of individuals and organisations rigorously analysed the content of the CHS and tested it at headquarters and field level.

The three founding bodies and copyright holders of the Core Humanitarian Standard are Groupe URD, Sphere, and the CHS Alliance. They play complementary roles, namely:
  • The CHS Alliance assists its members and the wider community to promote and implement the CHS; the CHS Verification Scheme allows organisations to measure the extent to which they have successfully applied the Standard.
  • Groupe URD helps organisations to improve the quality of their programmes through evaluations, research, training, and strategic and quality support. It has developed the Quality & Accountability COMPASS, which provides guidelines, processes and tools to help implement the CHS in the field.
  • Sphere works with humanitarian agencies and individual practitioners to improve the quality and accountability of humanitarian assistance. The Sphere Handbook sets common principles and universal minimum standards in areas of humanitarian response. The Core Humanitarian Standard is one of the three foundational chapters of Sphere, informing and supporting the technical standards, together with the Humanitarian Charter and the Protection Principles.

Besides the CHS Alliance, Sphere and Groupe URD, there are numerous organisations around the world that advocate for, promote and implement the CHS.

Nine Commitments:

The Core Humanitarian Standard (CHS) sets out Nine Commitments to communities and people affected by crisi stating what they can expect from organisations and individuals delivering humanitarian Each Commitment is supported by a Quality Criterion that indicates how humanitarian organisations and staff should be working in order to live up to it.

The Core Humanitarian Standard (CHS) sets out Nine Commitments to communities and people affected by crisi stating what they can expect from organisations and individuals delivering humanitarian Each Commitment is supported by a Quality Criterion that indicates how humanitarian organisations and staff should be working in order to live up to it:
  1. Communities and people affected by crisis receive assistance appropriate and relevant to their needs.
    • Quality Criterion: Humanitarian response is appropriate and relevant.
  2. Communities and people affected by crisis have access to the humanitarian assistance they need at the right time.
    • Quality Criterion: Humanitarian response is effective and timely
  3. Communities and people affected by crisis are not negatively affected and are more prepared, resilient and less at-risk as a result of humanitarian action.
    • Quality Criterion: Humanitarian response strengthens local capacities and avoids negative effects
  4. Communities and people affected by crisis know their rights and entitlements, have access to information and participate in decisions that affect them.
    • Quality Criterion: Humanitarian response is based on communication, participation and feedback.
  5. Communities and people affected by crisis have access to safe and responsive mechanisms to handle complaints.
    • Quality Criterion: Complaints are welcomed and addressed.
  6. Communities and people affected by crisis receive coordinated, complementary assistance.
    • Quality Criterion: Humanitarian response is coordinated and complementary.
  7. Communities and people affected by crisis can expect delivery of improved assistance as organisations learn from experience and reflection.
    • Quality Criterion: Humanitarian actors continuously learn and improve.
  8. Communities and people affected by crisis receive the assistance they require from competent and well-managed staff and volunteers.
    • Quality Criterion: Staff are supported to do their job effectively, and are treated fairly and equitably.
  9. Communities and people affected by crisis can expect that the organisations assisting them are managing resources effectively, efficiently and ethically.
    • Quality Criterion: Resources are managed and used responsibly for their intended purpose.

Statements of Support:

The Core Humanitarian Standard (CHS) was created with the ambitious goal to provide the entire humanitarian and development sectors with a common reference framework for quality and accountability. Subsequently, many humanitarian and development organisations adopted the Standard and/or expressed their support.

Some of the notable statements of support are from
Furthermore, it has been featured in key documents such as the Commitments on Accountability to Affected People and Protection from Sexual Exploitation and Abuse (CAAP) by the Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC), and the first annual synthesis report published by UNOCHA since the World Humanitarian Summit and entitled ‘No Time to Retreat’ (2017).

“We see the CHS has the clear potential to become an influential framework to set out a common set of commitments and expectations for organisations engaged in principled humanitarian action, based on humanity, impartiality, neutrality and independence.”
International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) on the Core Humanitarian Standard

Utilization:

Since 2014, the uptake of the CHS is steadily on the increase. Case studies and best practices show that complying with the CHS indeed increases the overall effectiveness and quality of the work of humanitarian and development organisations. For example, putting emphasis on training (Commitment 7, 8) helps to improve the quality and speed of surge response, improving the way of engagement with communities (Commitment 4) helps to obtain quality information and thus a true understanding of people’s realities, and in general, the CHS contributes to making organisations more transparent and to addressing sexual exploitation and abuse (SEA).

Verification:

The Core Humanitarian Standard (CHS) is a voluntary and measurable standard, which means its application can be objectively assessed.

Verification is a structured, systematic process to assess the degree to which an organisation is working to achieve the CHS. The Verification Scheme is managed by the CHS Alliance. It sets out the policies and rules of the verification process to ensure it is conducted in a fair and consistent manner for all participating organisations.

The Scheme offers four verification options with different degrees of rigour and confidence in the results. These are self-assessment, peer review, independent verification and certification. Although each option is stand alone, the indicators used in the self-assessment are common to all four options.

To avoid potential conflicts of interest and following international good practice, the actual independent auditing is undertaken by a certification body specially established for this purpose and is totally independent from the CHS Alliance, the CHS standard setting process and the organisations it audits. Currently the only such organisation is the Humanitarian Quality Assurance Initiative.

See also:







Venture Philanthropy
YouTube Video: What is Venture Philanthropy?
YouTube Video: Driving Innovation through Venture Philanthropy
Pictured Below: Wait—What is Venture Philanthropy, Again?

Venture philanthropy is a type of impact investment that takes concepts and techniques from venture capital finance and business management and applies them to achieving philanthropic goals. The term was first used in 1969 by John D. Rockefeller III to describe an imaginative and risk-taking approach to philanthropy that may be undertaken by charitable organizations.

Examples:

The Centre for Effective Altruism spun off a venture philanthropy project in 2014, called Effective Altruism Ventures. Other examples of this type of venture philanthropy are 
​Cystic Fibrosis Foundation:

In the late 1990s the Bethesda-based Cystic Fibrosis Foundation, wanting to take more direct action toward finding treatments for cystic fibrosis beyond its traditional approach of funding basic research at universities, invested in a small California biotechnology firm to help fund the discovery and development of the drug that twenty years later was approved as Kalydeco.

Unlike other drugs that were available that just address symptoms of CF, the drug candidate was intended to address the underlying cause of CF. The company in which CFF invested was Aurora Biosciences; CFF provided $30 million for Aurora to identify and develop up to three drug candidates. The unusual nature of the arrangement was widely noted.

In 2001, Aurora was acquired by Vertex Pharmaceuticals, but CFF continued to fund development of the CF drug candidates. That funding eventually grew to $150 million, much of which was raised for the CFF by Joe O’Donnell, a Boston businessman whose son died of CF.

When Vertex started selling Kalydeco, it priced it at about $300,000 a year and promised to provide it free to anyone in the U.S. who was uninsured or whose insurance wouldn't cover it.

It justified the price—one of the highest in the world for any drug—by explaining that on the one hand, that it can only treat about 4% of CF patients, or about 3,000 people worldwide; as it was only approved for adults and children six and older, there are only about 2,400 people eligible to receive it; with that few people, it needed a high price in order to pay for the research to create it as well as its other programs, which include a drug candidate that could treat many more people with CF.

It also pointed out the strong efficacy of the drug, and laid out the costs of managing CF that would be saved for people that the drug could treat; those costs include repeated hospitalizations and lung transplants.

Nonetheless the high price led to sharp criticism of Vertex and the CFF. Twenty-nine physicians and scientists working with people with cystic fibrosis (CF) wrote to the CEO of Vertex Pharmaceuticals to plead for lower prices.

CFF made the investment in exchange for a promise of royalties paid on sales of any drug it funded that made it to market; in 2014 it sold the future royalty stream to Royalty Pharma, a royalty fund investment company, for $3.3 billion, and said that it would use the funds to invest yet more in research and clinical trials for cystic fibrosis treatments.

In the course of working out the deal with Aurora in 2000, CFF included a clause in the agreement that allowed them to take control of the intellectual property if Aurora stopped developing any drug that had been discovered. CFF struck a similar agreement with the company, Altus Pharmaceuticals, to fund development of a recombinant enzyme that could treat pancreatic disease in people with cystic fibrosis.

When Altus reported to CFF that it didn't have funds to continue developing the drug, CFF seized control of the asset and eventually licensed it to Alnara Pharmaceuticals, which developed the drug further and was acquired by Eli Lilly in 2010.

Criticism of venture philanthropy in education:

UW-Madison Professor Emeritus Kenneth Zeichner wrote a paper criticizing the role of the New Schools Venture Fund in bringing deregulation and market-based practices into schools in the US. Lois Weiner writing in Jacobin criticized teachers' unions for taking money from the Gates Foundation.

See also:







What is Altruism?
YouTube Video: Treading the road less traveled: Life as a humanitarian worker
(Courtesy of International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC))
​Pictured: This figure shows the areas of the human brain that are known to be important in empathy and helping. They include the amygdala (area 1) and sections of the prefrontal cortex (areas 2 and 3). From Lieberman (2010).

[Your Web Host: I added this topic to the Humanitarian web page as a scientific explanation of why individuals seek to serve as aid workers in some of the most horrific of conditions. God bless their work! ]

Altruism or selflessness is the principle or practice of concern for the welfare of others. It is a traditional virtue in many cultures and a core aspect of various religious traditions and secular worldviews, though the concept of "others" toward whom concern should be directed can vary among cultures and religions.

Altruism or selflessness is the opposite of selfishness. The word was coined by the French philosopher Auguste Comte in French, as altruisme, for an antonym of egoism. He derived it from the Italian altrui, which in turn was derived from Latin alteri, meaning "other people" or "somebody else".

Altruism in biological observations in field populations of the day organisms can be defined as an individual performing an action which is at a cost to themselves (e.g., pleasure and quality of life, time, probability of survival or reproduction), but benefits, either directly or indirectly, another third-party individual, without the expectation of reciprocity or compensation for that action.

Steinberg suggests a definition for altruism in the clinical setting, that is "intentional and voluntary actions that aim to enhance the welfare of another person in the absence of any quid pro quo external rewards".

​Altruism can be distinguished from feelings of loyalty, in that whilst the latter is predicated upon social relationships, altruism does not consider relationships. Much debate exists as to whether "true" altruism is possible in human psychology. The theory of psychological egoism suggests that no act of sharing, helping or sacrificing can be described as truly altruistic, as the actor may receive an intrinsic reward in the form of personal gratification.

The validity of this argument depends on whether intrinsic rewards qualify as "benefits". The actor also may not be expecting a reward.

The term altruism may also refer to an ethical doctrine that claims that individuals are morally obliged to benefit others. Used in this sense, it is usually contrasted with egoism, which is defined as acting to the benefit of one's self.

The concept has a long history in philosophical and ethical thought. The term was originally coined in the 19th century by the founding sociologist and philosopher of science, Auguste Comte, and has become a major topic for psychologists (especially evolutionary psychology researchers), evolutionary biologists, and ethologists. While ideas about altruism from one field can affect the other fields, the different methods and focuses of these fields always lead to different perspectives on altruism. In simple terms, altruism is caring about the welfare of other people and acting to help them

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Blood Banks including a List of blood donation agencies in the United States

YouTube Video: Mae's Story: How Blood Donations Help Save a Little Sister's Life
(Courtesy of the American Red Cross)​

YouTube Video: USA: 50 HOSPITALS SET UP CARE UNITS TO AVOID BLOOD TRANSFUSIONS
(AP Archive: More than fifty U-S hospitals have set up new surgical and critical care units to avoid blood transfusions in elective operations. They claim their bloodless approach is safer, puts less strain on the blood banks and is more cost effective. However, this revolutionary procedure is dividing the medical community. For countless trauma victims like these, a massive blood loss could lead to death. Despite patients' fears of receiving contaminated blood, most doctors insist that in emerge)

Pictured: ABOUT BLOOD TRANSFUSION: The term blood transfusion relates to simply the process of moving one person’s blood to another. A blood transfusion needs occurs when a person is experiencing blood loss that is severe enough to affect the circulation and the blood volume. When blood volume is so low that it is unable to transport oxygen around the body efficiently and when there’s spontaneous bleeding caused by too few platelets. There’s 4 types of blood that people can have; A, B, AB and O all covered with different antigens as shown in table below.

A blood bank is a center where blood gathered as a result of blood donation is stored and preserved for later use in blood transfusion. The term "blood bank" typically refers to a division of a hospital where the storage of blood product occurs and where proper testing is performed (to reduce the risk of transfusion related adverse events). However, it sometimes refers to a collection center, and indeed some hospitals also perform collection.

For blood donation agencies in various countries, see List of blood donation agencies and List of blood donation agencies in the United States.

Types of blood transfused:

Whole blood or blood with RBC, is transfused to patients with anaemia/iron deficiency. It also helps to improve the oxygen saturation in blood. It can be stored at 1.0 °C-6.0 °C for 35–45 days. 

Platelet transfusion, is transfused to those who suffer from low platelet count. This can be stored at room temperature for 5–7 days. Plasma transfusion is indicated to patients with liver failure, severe infections or serious burns. Fresh frozen plasma can be stored at a very low temperature of -25 °C for up to 12 months.

Collection and processing:

In the U.S., certain standards are set for the collection and processing of each blood product. "Whole blood" (WB) is the proper name for one defined product, specifically unseparated venous blood with an approved preservative added. Most blood for transfusion is collected as whole blood. Autologous donations are sometimes transfused without further modification, however whole blood is typically separated (via centrifugation) into its components, with red blood cells (RBC) in solution being the most commonly used product.

Units of WB and RBC are both kept refrigerated at 33.8 to 42.8 °F (1.0 to 6.0 °C), with maximum permitted storage periods (shelf lives) of 35 and 42 days respectively. RBC units can also be frozen when buffered with glycerol, but this is an expensive and time-consuming process, and is rarely done. Frozen red cells are given an expiration date of up to ten years and are stored at −85 °F (−65 °C).

The less-dense blood plasma is made into a variety of frozen components, and is labeled differently based on when it was frozen and what the intended use of the product is. If the plasma is frozen promptly and is intended for transfusion, it is typically labeled as fresh frozen plasma.

If it is intended to be made into other products, it is typically labeled as recovered plasma or plasma for fractionation. Cryoprecipitate can be made from other plasma components. These components must be stored at 0 °F (−18 °C) or colder, but are typically stored at −22 °F (−30 °C).

The layer between the red cells and the plasma is referred to as the buffy coat and is sometimes removed to make platelets for transfusion. Platelets are typically pooled before transfusion and have a shelf life of 5 to 7 days, or 3 days once the facility that collected them has completed their tests.

Platelets are stored at room temperature (72 °F or 22 °C) and must be rocked/agitated. Since they are stored at room temperature in nutritive solutions, they are at relatively high risk for growing bacteria.

Some blood banks also collect products by apheresis. The most common component collected is plasma via plasmapheresis, but red blood cells and platelets can be collected by similar methods. These products generally have the same shelf life and storage conditions as their conventionally-produced counterparts.

Donors are sometimes paid; in the U.S. and Europe, most blood for transfusion is collected from volunteers while plasma for other purposes may be from paid donors.

Most collection facilities as well as hospital blood banks also perform testing to determine the blood type of patients and to identify compatible blood products, along with a battery of tests (e.g. disease) and treatments (e.g. leukocyte filtration) to ensure or enhance quality. The increasingly recognized problem of inadequate efficacy of transfusion is also raising the profile of RBC viability and quality.

Notably, U.S. hospitals spend more on dealing with the consequences of transfusion-related complications than on the combined costs of buying, testing/treating, and transfusing their blood.

Storage and management:

Routine blood storage is 42 days or 6 weeks for stored packed red blood cells (also called "StRBC" or "pRBC"), by far the most commonly transfused blood product, and involves refrigeration but usually not freezing. There has been increasing controversy about whether a given product unit's age is a factor in transfusion efficacy, specifically on whether "older" blood directly or indirectly increases risks of complications. 

Studies have not been consistent on answering this question, with some showing that older blood is indeed less effective but with others showing no such difference; nevertheless, as storage time remains the only available way to estimate quality status or loss, a first-in-first-out inventory management approach is standard presently. 

It is also important to consider that there is large variability in storage results for different donors, which combined with limited available quality testing, poses challenges to clinicians and regulators seeking reliable indicators of quality for blood products and storage systems.

Transfusions of platelets are comparatively far less numerous, but they present unique storage/management issues. Platelets may only be stored for 7 days, due largely to their greater potential for contamination, which is in turn due largely to a higher storage temperature.

RBC storage lesion:

Insufficient transfusion efficacy can result from red blood cell (RBC) blood product units damaged by so-called storage lesion—a set of biochemical and biomechanical changes which occur during storage. With red cells, this can decrease viability and ability for tissue oxygenation. 

Although some of the biochemical changes are reversible after the blood is transfused, the biomechanical changes are less so, and rejuvenation products are not yet able to adequately reverse this phenomenon.

Current regulatory measures are in place to minimize RBC storage lesion—including a maximum shelf life (currently 42 days), a maximum auto-hemolysis threshold (currently 1% in the US), and a minimum level of post-transfusion RBC survival in vivo (currently 75% after 24 hours). 

However, all of these criteria are applied in a universal manner that does not account for differences among units of product; for example, testing for the post-transfusion RBC survival in vivo is done on a sample of healthy volunteers, and then compliance is presumed for all RBC units based on universal (GMP) processing standards. RBC survival does not guarantee efficacy, but it is a necessary prerequisite for cell function, and hence serves as a regulatory proxy.

Opinions vary as to the best way to determine transfusion efficacy in a patient in vivo. In general, there are not yet any in vitro tests to assess quality deterioration or preservation for specific units of RBC blood product prior to their transfusion, though there is exploration of potentially relevant tests based on RBC membrane properties such as erythrocyte deformability and erythrocyte fragility (mechanical).

Many physicians have adopted a so-called "restrictive protocol"—whereby transfusion is held to a minimum—due in part to the noted uncertainties surrounding storage lesion, in addition to the very high direct and indirect costs of transfusions, along with the increasing view that many transfusions are inappropriate or use too many RBC units.

Platelet storage lesion:

Platelet storage lesion is a very different phenomenon from RBC storage lesion, due largely to the different functions of the products and purposes of the respective transfusions, along with different processing issues and inventory management considerations.

Alternative inventory and release practices:

Although as noted the primary inventory-management approach is first in, first out (FIFO) to minimize product expiration, there are some deviations from this policy—both in current practice as well as under research. For example, exchange transfusion of RBC in neonates calls for use of blood product that is five days old or less, to "ensure" optimal cell function.

Also, some hospital blood banks will attempt to accommodate physicians' requests to provide low-aged RBC product for certain kinds of patients (e.g. cardiac surgery).

More recently, novel approaches are being explored to complement or replace FIFO. One is to balance the desire to reduce average product age (at transfusion) with the need to maintain sufficient availability of non-outdated product, leading to a strategic blend of FIFO with last in, first out (LIFO).

Long-term storage:

"Long-term" storage for all blood products is relatively uncommon, compared to routine/short-term storage. Cryopreservation of red blood cells is done to store rare units for up to ten years. The cells are incubated in a glycerol solution which acts as a cryoprotectant ("antifreeze") within the cells. The units are then placed in special sterile containers in a freezer at very low temperatures. The exact temperature depends on the glycerol concentration.

Click on any of the following blue hyperlinks for more about Blood Banks:







[Note that this topic is extensively covered by Wikipedia: to keep it most meaningful, the following focuses on those issues pertaining to activities we all might face in case of an emergency!]

Emergency Management
YouTube Video:  Expect the Unexpected: Emergency Preparedness
(Video by WorkSafeBC)
Pictured below: The graphic represents a section of the ITS* Taxonomy. For an overall view of the ITS* Taxonomy, click here. 
* -- Office of the Assistant Secretary for Research and Technology (U.S. Department of Transportation)

Emergency management is the organization and management of resources and responsibilities for dealing with all humanitarian aspects of emergencies (preparedness, response, and recovery). The aim is to reduce the harmful effects of all hazards, including disasters. It should not be equated to "disaster management".

The World Health Organization defines an emergency as the state in which normal procedures are interrupted, and immediate measures need to be taken to prevent that state turning into a disaster. Thus, emergency management is crucial to avoid the disruption transforming into a disaster, which is even harder to recover from.

Emergency Planning Goals:
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If possible, emergency planning should aim to prevent emergencies from occurring, and failing that, should develop a good action plan to mitigate the results and effects of any emergencies.

As time goes on, and more data become available, usually through the study of emergencies as they occur, a plan should evolve. The development of emergency plans is a cyclical process, common to many risk management disciplines, such as Business Continuity and Security Risk Management, as set out below:
  • Recognition or identification of risks
  • Ranking or evaluation of risks
  • Responding to significant risks
  • Tolerate
  • Treat
  • Transfer
  • Terminate
  • Resourcing controls and planning
  • Reaction Planning
  • Reporting & monitoring risk performance
  • Reviewing the Risk Management framework

There are a number of guidelines and publications regarding Emergency Planning, published by various professional organizations such as ASIS, National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), and the International Association of Emergency Managers (IAEM). There are very few Emergency Management specific standards, and emergency management as a discipline tends to fall under business resilience standards.

In order to avoid, or reduce significant losses to a business, emergency managers should work to identify and anticipate potential risks, hopefully to reduce their probability of occurring.

In the event that an emergency does occur, managers should have a plan prepared to mitigate the effects of that emergency, as well as to ensure Business Continuity of critical operations post-incident. It is essential for an organization to include procedures for determining whether an emergency situation has occurred and at what point an emergency management plan should be activated.

An emergency plan must be regularly maintained, in a structured and methodical manner, to ensure it is up-to-date in the event of an emergency. Emergency managers generally follow a common process to anticipate, assess, prevent, prepare, respond and recover from an incident.

Health and safety of workers:
​
Cleanup during disaster recovery involves many occupational hazards. Often these hazards are exacerbated by the conditions of the local environment as a result of the natural disaster.

While individual workers should be aware of these potential hazards, employers are responsible to minimize exposure to these hazards and protect workers, when possible. This includes identification and thorough assessment of potential hazards, application of appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE), and the distribution of other relevant information in order to enable safe performance of the work.

Maintaining a safe and healthy environment for these workers ensures that the effectiveness of the disaster recovery is unaffected.

Physical exposures:

Flood-associated injuries: Flooding disasters often expose workers to trauma from sharp and blunt objects hidden under murky waters causing lacerations, as well as open and closed fractures. These injuries are further exacerbated with exposure to the often contaminated waters, leading to increased risk for infection.

When working around water, there is always the risk of drowning. In addition, the risk of hypothermia significantly increases with prolonged exposure to water temperatures less than 75 degrees Fahrenheit. Non-infectious skin conditions may also occur including miliaria, immersion foot syndrome (including trench foot), and contact dermatitis.

Earthquake-associated injuries: The predominant exposure are related to building structural components, including falling debris with possible crush injury, trapped under rubble, burns, and electric shock.

Chemical exposures:

Hazardous material release: Chemicals can pose a risk to human health when exposed to humans at certain quantities. After a natural disaster, certain chemicals can be more prominent in the environment. These hazardous materials can be release can be directly or indirectly. Chemical hazards directly released after a natural disaster often occur concurrent with the event so little to no mitigation actions can take place for mitigation. For example, airborne magnesium, chloride, phosphorus, and ammonia can be generated by droughts.

Dioxins can be produced by forest fires, and silica can be emitted by forest fires. Indirect release of hazardous chemicals can be intentionally released or unintentionally released. An example of intentional release is insecticides used after a flood or chlorine treatment of water after a flood. Unintentional release is when a hazardous chemical is not intentionally released.

The chemical released is often toxic and serves beneficial purpose when released to the environment. These chemicals can be controlled through engineering to minimize their release when a natural disaster strikes. An example of this is agro-chemicals from inundated storehouses or manufacturing facilities poisoning the floodwaters or asbestos fibers released from a building collapse during a hurricane.

Exposure Limits:

Below are TLV-TWA, PEL, and IDLH values for common chemicals workers are exposed to after a natural disaster:
​Direct release
Magnesium
Phosphorus
Ammonia
Silica

Intentional release
Insecticides
Chlorine dioxide

Unintentional release
Crude oil components…
Benzene, N-hexane, Hydrogen Sulfide, Cumene, Ethylbenzene, Naphthalene, Toluene, Xylenes, PCBs Agrochemicals
Asbestos

Exposure routes

When a toxicant is prominent in an environment after a natural disaster, it is important to determine the route of exposure to worker safety for the disaster management workers. The 3 components are source of exposure, pathway of the chemical, and receptor. Questions to ask hen dealing with chemical source is the material itself, how it’s used, how much is used, how often the chemical is used, temperature, vapor pressure, physical processes.

The physical state of the chemical is important to identify. If working indoors, room ventilation, and volume of room needs to be noted to help mitigate health defects from the chemical. Lastly, to ensure worker safety, routes of entry for the chemical should be determined as well as relevant personal protective equipment needs to be worn.

Respirators

According to the CDC “If you need to collect belongings or do basic clean up in your previously flooded home, you do not usually need to use a respirator (a mask worn to prevent breathing in harmful substances).”

A respirator should be worn when performing an operation in an enclosed environment such as a house that creates ample amounts of dust. These activities could include sweeping dust, using power saws and equipment, or cleaning up mold. If you encounter dust, the CDC says to “limit your contact with the dust as much as possible.

Use wet mops or vacuums with HEPA filters instead of dry sweeping and lastly wear a respirator that protects against dust in the air. A respirator that is approved by the CDC/NIOSH is the N95 respirator and can be a good personal protective equipment to protect from dust and mold in the air from the associated natural disaster.

​Biological exposures:

Mold exposures: Exposure to mold is commonly seen after a natural disaster such as flooding, hurricane, tornado or tsunami. Mold growth can occur on both the exterior and interior of residential or commercial buildings. Warm and humid condition encourages mold growth; therefore, standing water and excess moisture after a natural disaster would provide an ideal environment for mold growth especially in tropical regions.

While the exact number of mold species is unknown, some examples of commonly found indoor molds are Aspergillus, Cladosporium, Alternaria and Penicillium. Reaction to molds differ between individuals and can range from mild symptoms such as eye irritation, cough to severe life-threatening asthmatic or allergic reactions. People with history of chronic lung disease, asthma, allergy, other breathing problems or those that are immunocompromised could be more sensitive to molds and may develop fungal pneumonia.

The most effective approach to control mold growth after a natural disaster is to control moisture level. Some ways to prevent mold growth after a natural disaster include opening all doors and windows, using fans to dry out the building, positioning fans to blow air out of the windows and cleaning up the building within the first 24–48 hours. 

All wet items that cannot be properly cleaned and dried within the first 48 hours should be promptly removed and discarded from the building. If mold growth is found in the building, it is important to concurrently remove the molds and fix the underlying moisture problem.

When removing molds, N-95 masks or respirators with a higher protection level should be used to prevent inhalation of molds into the respiratory system. Molds can be removed from hard surfaces by soap and water, a diluted bleach solution or commercial products.

Human remains:  According to the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), "There is no direct risk of contagion or infectious disease from being near human remains for people who are not directly involved in recovery or other efforts that require handling dead bodies.” Most viruses and bacteria perish along with the human body after death.

Therefore, no excessive measures are necessary when handling human remains indirectly. However, for workers in direct contact with human remains, universal precautions should be exercised in order to prevent unnecessary exposure to blood-borne viruses and bacteria.

Relevant PPE includes eye protection, face mask or shield, and gloves. The predominant health risk are gastrointestinal infections through fecal-oral contamination, so hand hygiene is paramount to prevention. Mental health support should also be available to workers who endure psychological stress during and after recovery.

Flood-associated skin infections: Flood waters are often contaminated with bacteria and waste as well as chemicals on occasion. Prolonged, direct contact with these waters leads to an increased risk for skin infection, especially with open wounds in the skin or history of a previous skin condition, such as atopic dermatitis or psoriasis. These infections are exacerbated with a compromised immune system or an aging population.

​The most common bacterial skin infections are usually with Staphylococcus and Streptococcus. One of the most uncommon, but well-known bacterial infections is from Vibrio vulnificus, which causes a rare, but often fatal infection called necrotizing fasciitis.

Other salt-water Mycobacterium infections include the slow growing M. marinum and fast growing M. fortuitum, M. chelonae, and M. abscessus. Fresh-water bacterial infections include: 
Fungal infections may lead to chromoblastomycosis, blastomycosis, mucormycosis, and dermatophytosis. Numerous other arthropod, protozoal, and parasitic infections have been described.

A worker can reduce the risk of flood-associated skin infections by avoiding the water if an open wound is present, or at minimum, cover the open wound with a waterproof bandage.

Should contact with flood water occur, the open wound should be washed thoroughly with soap and clean water.

Psychosocial exposures: Providing disaster recovery assistance is both rewarding and stressful. According to the CDC, "Sources of stress for emergency responders may include witnessing human suffering, risk of personal harm, intense workloads, life-and-death decisions, and separation from family."

These stresses need to be prevented or effectively managed in order to optimize assistance without causing danger to oneself. Preparation as an emergency responder is key, in addition to establishing care for responsibilities at home. During the recovery efforts, it is critical to understand and recognize burnout and sources of stress.

After the recovery, it is vital to take time away from the disaster scene and slowly re-integrate back to the normal work environment. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) provides stress prevention and management resources for disaster recovery responders.

​Volunteer responsibilities:

The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) advises those who desire to assist go through organized volunteer organizations and not to self-deploy to affected locations.

The National Volunteer Organizations Active in Disaster (VOAD) serves as the primary point of contact for volunteer organization coordination. All states have their own state VOAD organization. As a volunteer, since an employer does not have oversight, one must be vigilant and protect against possible physical, chemical, biological, and psychosocial exposures. Furthermore, there must be defined roles with relevant training available.

Proper tools and PPE may or may not be available, so safety and liability should always be considered.

Employer responsibilities:

Every employer is required to maintain a safe and healthy workplace for its employees. When an emergency situation occurs, employers are expected to protect workers from all harm resulting from any potential hazard, including physical, chemical, and biological exposure. In addition, an employer should provide pre-emergency training and build an emergency action plan.

Emergency action plan (EAP):

A written document about what actions employers and employees should take when responding to an emergency situation. According to OSHA regulations 1910.38, an employer must have an emergency action plan whenever an OSHA standard in this part requires one. To develop an emergency action plan, an employer should start from workplace evaluation.

Typically, most of the occupational emergency management can be divided into worksite evaluation, exposure monitoring, hazard control, work practices, and training.

Worksite evaluation is about identifying the source and location of the potential hazards such as fall, noise, cold, heat, hypoxia, infectious materials, and toxic chemicals that each of the workers may encounter during emergency situations.

Exposure monitoring:

After identifying the source and location of the hazard(s), it is essential to monitor how employees may be exposed to these dangers. Employers should conduct task-specific exposure monitoring when they meet following requirements:
  • When the exposed substance has specific standard required by OSHA
  • When employers anticipate workers will be exposed to more hazards than the action level set by OSHA
  • When there is a worker complaint or concern about the exposure
  • When an employee questions the effectiveness of the existing hazard control methods

To effectively acquire the above information, an employer can ask workers how they perform the task or use direct reading instruments to identify the exposure level and exposure route.
​
Hazard control:

Employers can conduct hazard control by:
Training:

Employers should train their employees annually before an emergency action plan is implemented. [29 CFR 1910.38(e)] The purpose of training is to inform employees of their responsibilities and/or plan of action during emergency situations. The training program should include the types of emergencies that may occur, the appropriate response, evacuation procedure, warning/reporting procedure, and shutdown procedures.

Training requirements are different depending on the size of workplace and workforce, processes used, materials handled, available resources and who will be in charge during an emergency.

The training program should address the following information:
  • Workers' roles and responsibilities.
  • Potential hazards and hazard-preventing actions.
  • Notification alarm system, and communications process
  • Communication means between family members in an emergency.
  • First Aid Kit
  • Emergency response procedures.
  • Evacuation procedures.
  • A list of emergency equipment including its location and function.
  • Emergency shutdown procedures.

After the emergency action plan is completed, employer and employees should review the plan carefully and post it in a public area that is accessible to everyone. In addition, another responsibility of the employer is to keep a record of any injury or illness of workers according to OSHA/State Plan Record-keeping regulations.

Implementation Ideals:

Pre-incident training and testing: Emergency management plans and procedures should include the identification of appropriately trained staff members responsible for decision-making when an emergency occurs. Training plans should include internal people, contractors and civil protection partners, and should state the nature and frequency of training and testing.

Testing of a plan's effectiveness should occur regularly. In instances where several business or organisations occupy the same space, joint emergency plans, formally agreed to by all parties, should be put into place.

Drills and exercises in preparation for foreseeable hazards are often held, with the participation of the services that will be involved in handling the emergency, and people who will be affected. Drills are held to prepare for the hazards of fires, tornadoes, lockdown for protection, earthquakes, etc.

Communicating and incident assessment:

Communication is one of the key issues during any emergency, pre-planning of communications is critical. Miscommunication can easily result in emergency events escalating unnecessarily.

Once an emergency has been identified a comprehensive assessment evaluating the level of impact and its financial implications should be undertaken. Following assessment, the appropriate plan or response to be activated will depend on a specific pre-set criteria within the emergency plan. The steps necessary should be prioritized to ensure critical functions are operational as soon as possible. The critical functions are those that makes the plan untenable if not operationalized.

The Communication policy must be well known and rehearsed and all targeted audiences or publics and individuals must be alert. All Communication infrastructure must be as prepared as possible with all information on groupings clearly identified.

Phases and personal activities:

Emergency management consists of five phases: prevention, mitigation, preparedness, response and recovery. http://www.fema.gov/mission-areas

Prevention:

It focuses on preventing the human hazard, primarily from potential natural disasters or terrorist attacks. Preventive measures are taken on both the domestic and international levels, designed to provide permanent protection from disasters. also by doing this the risk of loss of life and injury can be mitigated with good evacuation plans, environmental planning and design standards. In January 2005, 167 Governments adopted a 10-year global plan for natural disaster risk reduction called the Hyogo Framework.

Preventing or reducing the impacts of disasters on our communities is a key focus for emergency management efforts today. Prevention and mitigation also help reduce the financial costs of disaster response and recovery. Public Safety Canada is working with provincial and territorial governments and stakeholders to promote disaster prevention and mitigation using a risk-based and all-hazards approach.

In 2009, Federal/Provincial/Territorial Ministers endorsed a National Disaster Mitigation Strategy.

Mitigation strategy:

Disaster mitigation measures are those that eliminate or reduce the impacts and risks of hazards through proactive measures taken before an emergency or disaster occurs.

Preventive or mitigation measures take different forms for different types of disasters. In earthquake prone areas, these preventive measures might include structural changes such as the installation of an earthquake valve to instantly shut off the natural gas supply, seismic retrofits of property, and the securing of items inside a building. The latter may include the mounting of furniture, refrigerators, water heaters and breakables to the walls, and the addition of cabinet latches.

In flood prone areas, houses can be built on poles/stilts. In areas prone to prolonged electricity black-outs installation of a generator ensures continuation of electrical service. The construction of storm cellars and fallout shelters are further examples of personal mitigative actions.

On a national level, governments might implement large scale mitigation measures. After the monsoon floods of 2010, the Punjab government subsequently constructed 22 'disaster-resilient' model villages, comprising 1885 single-storey homes, together with schools and health centres.

One of the best known examples of investment in disaster mitigation is the Red River Floodway. The building of the Floodway was a joint provincial/federal undertaking to protect the City of Winnipeg and reduce the impact of flooding in the Red River Basin. It cost $62.7 million to build in the 1960s.

Since then, the floodway has been used over 20 times. Its use during the 1997 Red River Flood alone saved an estimated $4.5 billion in costs from potential damage to the city. The Floodway was expanded in 2006 as a joint provincial/federal initiative.

Preparedness:

Preparedness focuses on preparing equipment and procedures for use when a disaster occurs. This equipment and these procedures can be used to reduce vulnerability to disaster, to mitigate the impacts of a disaster or to respond more efficiently in an emergency.

The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) has set out a basic four-stage vision of preparedness flowing from mitigation to preparedness to response to recovery and back to mitigation in a circular planning process. This circular, overlapping model has been modified by other agencies, taught in emergency class and discussed in academic papers.

FEMA also operates a Building Science Branch that develops and produces multi-hazard mitigation guidance that focuses on creating disaster-resilient communities to reduce loss of life and property. FEMA advises citizens to prepare their homes with some emergency essentials in the case that the food distribution lines are interrupted.

FEMA has subsequently prepared for this contingency by purchasing hundreds of thousands of freeze dried food emergency meals ready to eat (MRE's) to dispense to the communities where emergency shelter and evacuations are implemented.

Some guidelines for household preparedness have been put online by the State of Colorado, on the topics of water, food, tools, and so on.

Emergency preparedness can be difficult to measure. CDC focuses on evaluating the effectiveness of its public health efforts through a variety of measurement and assessment programs.

Local Emergency Planning Committees:

Local Emergency Planning Committees (LEPCs) are required by the United States Environmental Protection Agency under the Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act to develop an emergency response plan, review the plan at least annually, and provide information about chemicals in the community to local citizens.

This emergency preparedness effort focuses on hazards presented by use and storage of extremely hazardous and toxic chemicals.[39] Particular requirements of LEPCs include
  • Identification of facilities and transportation routes of extremely hazardous substances
  • Description of emergency response procedures, on and off site
  • Designation of a community coordinator and facility emergency coordinator(s) to implement the plan
  • Outline of emergency notification procedures
  • Description of how to determine the probable affected area and population by releases
  • Description of local emergency equipment and facilities and the persons responsible for them
  • Outline of evacuation plans
  • A training program for emergency responders (including schedules)
  • Methods and schedules for exercising emergency response plans

According to the EPA, "Many LEPCs have expanded their activities beyond the requirements of EPCRA, encouraging accident prevention and risk reduction, and addressing homeland security in their communities" and the Agency offers advice on how to evaluate the effectiveness of these committees.

Preparedness measures:

Preparedness measures can take many forms ranging from focusing on individual people, locations or incidents to broader, government-based "all hazard" planning. There are a number of preparedness stages between "all hazard' and individual planning, generally involving some combination of both mitigation and response planning.

Business continuity planning encourages businesses to have a Disaster Recovery Plan. Community- and faith-based organizations mitigation efforts promote field response teams and inter-agency planning.

School-based response teams cover everything from live shooters to gas leaks and nearby bank robberies. Educational institutions plan for cyberattacks and windstorms. Industry specific guidance exists for horse farms, boat owners and more.

Family preparedness for disaster is fairly unusual. A 2013 survey found that only 19% of American families felt that they were "very prepared" for a disaster. Still, there are many resources available for family disaster planning. The Department of Homeland Security's Ready.gov page includes a Family Emergency Plan Checklist, has a whole webpage devoted to readiness for kids, complete with cartoon-style superheroes, and ran a Thunderclap Campaign in 2014. The Center for Disease Control has a Zombie Apocalypse website.

Disasters take a variety of forms to include earthquakes, tsunamis or regular structure fires. That a disaster or emergency is not large scale in terms of population or acreage impacted or duration does not make it any less of a disaster for the people or area impacted and much can be learned about preparedness from so-called small disasters. The Red Cross states that it responds to nearly 70,000 disasters a year, the most common of which is a single family fire.

Preparedness starts with an individual's everyday life and involves items and training that would be useful in an emergency. What is useful in an emergency is often also useful in everyday life. From personal preparedness, preparedness continues on a continuum through family preparedness, community preparedness and then business, non-profit and governmental preparedness. Some organizations blend these various levels.

For example, the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement has a webpage on disaster training as well as offering training on basic preparedness such as Cardiopulmonary resuscitation and First Aid.

Other non-profits such as Team Rubicon bring specific groups of people into disaster preparedness and response operations. FEMA breaks down preparedness into a pyramid, with citizens on the foundational bottom, on top of which rests local government, state government and federal government in that order.

Non-perishable food in cabinet:

The basic theme behind preparedness is to be ready for an emergency and there are a number of different variations of being ready based on an assessment of what sort of threats exist.

Nonetheless, there is basic guidance for preparedness that is common despite an area's specific dangers. FEMA recommends that everyone have a three-day survival kit for their household.

Because individual household sizes and specific needs might vary, FEMA's recommendations are not item specific, but the list includes:
  • Three-day supply of non-perishable food.
  • Three-day supply of water – one gallon of water per person, per day.
  • Portable, battery-powered radio or television and extra batteries.
  • Flashlight and extra batteries.
  • First aid kit and manual.
  • Sanitation and hygiene items (e.g. toilet paper, menstrual hygiene products).
  • Matches and waterproof container.
  • Whistle.
  • Extra clothing.
  • Kitchen accessories and cooking utensils, including a can opener.
  • Photocopies of credit and identification cards.
  • Cash and coins.
  • Special needs items, such as prescription medications, eyeglasses, contact lens solutions, and hearing aid batteries.
  • Items for infants, such as formula, diapers, bottles, and pacifiers.
  • Other items to meet unique family needs.
  • Along similar lines, but not exactly the same, CDC has its own list for a proper disaster supply kit.
  • Water—one gallon per person, per day
  • Food—nonperishable, easy-to-prepare items
  • Flashlight
  • Battery powered or hand crank radio (NOAA Weather Radio, if possible)
  • Extra batteries
  • First aid kit
  • Medications (7-day supply), other medical supplies, and medical paperwork (e.g., medication list and pertinent medical information)
  • Multipurpose tool (e.g., Swiss army knife)
  • Sanitation and personal hygiene items
  • Copies of personal documents (e.g., proof of address, deed/lease to home, passports, birth certificates, and insurance policies)
  • Cell phone with chargers
  • Family and emergency contact information
  • Extra cash
  • Emergency blanket
  • Map(s) of the area
  • Extra set of car keys and house keys
  • Manual can opener
​
Children are a special population when considering Emergency preparedness and many resources are directly focused on supporting them. SAMHSA has list of tips for talking to children during infectious disease outbreaks, to include being a good listener, encouraging children to ask questions and modeling self-care by setting routines, eating healthy meals, getting enough sleep and taking deep breaths to handle stress.

FEMA has similar advice, noting that "Disasters can leave children feeling frightened, confused, and insecure" whether a child has experienced it first hand, had it happen to a friend or simply saw it on television. In the same publication, FEMA further notes, "Preparing for disaster helps everyone in the family accept the fact that disasters do happen, and provides an opportunity to identify and collect the resources needed to meet basic needs after disaster. Preparation helps; when people feel prepared, they cope better and so do children."

To help people assess what threats might be in order to augment their emergency supplies or improve their disaster response skills, FEMA has published a booklet called the "Threat and Hazard Identification and Risk Assessment Guide." (THIRA) This guide, which outlines the THIRA process, emphasizes "whole community involvement," not just governmental agencies, in preparedness efforts.

In this guide, FEMA breaks down hazards into three categories: Natural, technological and human caused and notes that each hazard should be assessed for both its likelihood and its significance.

According to FEMA, "Communities should consider only those threats and hazards that could plausibly occur" and "Communities should consider only those threats and hazards that would have a significant effect on them." To develop threat and hazard context descriptions, communities should take into account the time, place, and conditions in which threats or hazards might occur.

Not all preparedness efforts and discussions involve the government or established NGOs like the Red Cross. Emergency preparation discussions are active on the internet, with many blogs and websites dedicated to discussing various aspects of preparedness. On-line sales of items such as survival food, medical supplies and heirloom seeds allow people to stock basements with cases of food and drinks with 25 year shelf lives, sophisticated medical kits and seeds that are guaranteed to sprout even after years of storage.

One group of people who put a lot of effort in disaster preparations is called Doomsday Preppers. This subset of preparedness-minded people often share a belief that the FEMA or Red Cross emergency preparation suggestions and training are not extensive enough.

Sometimes called survivalists, Doomsday Preppers are often preparing for The End Of The World As We Know It, abbreviated as TEOTWAWKI. With a motto some have that "The Future Belongs to those who Prepare," this Preparedness subset has its own set of Murphy's Rules, including "Rule Number 1: Food, you still don't have enough" and "Rule Number 26: People who thought the Government would save them, found out that it didn't."

Not all emergency preparation efforts revolve around food, guns and shelters, though these items help address the needs in the bottom two sections of Maslow's hierarchy of needs. 

American Preppers Network has an extensive list of items that might be useful in less apparent ways than a first aid kid or help add 'fun' to challenging times. These items include:
  • Books and magazines
  • Arts and crafts painting
  • Children's entertainment
  • Crayons and coloring books
  • Notebooks and writing supplies
  • Nuts, bolts, screws, nails, etc.
  • Religious material
  • Sporting equipment, card games and board games
  • Posters and banners creating awareness

Emergency preparedness goes beyond immediate family members. For many people, pets are an integral part of their families and emergency preparation advice includes them as well. It is not unknown for pet owners to die while trying to rescue their pets from a fire or from drowning.

CDC's Disaster Supply Checklist for Pets includes:
  • Food and water for at least 3 days for each pet; bowls, and a manual can opener.
  • Depending on the pet you may need a litter box, paper towels, plastic trash bags, grooming items, and/or household bleach.
  • Medications and medical records stored in a waterproof container.
  • First aid kit with a pet first aid book.
  • Sturdy leash, harness, and carrier to transport pet safely. A carrier should be large enough for the animal to stand comfortably, turn around, and lie down. Your pet may have to stay in the carrier for several hours.
  • Pet toys and the pet's bed, if you can easily take it, to reduce stress.
  • Current photos and descriptions of your pets to help others identify them in case you and your pets become separated, and to prove that they are yours.
  • Information on feeding schedules, medical conditions, behavior problems, and the name and telephone number of your veterinarian in case you have to board your pets or place them in foster care.

Emergency preparedness also includes more than physical items and skill-specific training.

Psychological preparedness is also a type of emergency preparedness and specific mental health preparedness resources are offered for mental health professionals by organizations such as the Red Cross. 

These mental health preparedness resources are designed to support both community members affected by a disaster and the disaster workers serving them. CDC has a website devoted to coping with a disaster or traumatic event.

After such an event, the CDC, through the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), suggests that people seek psychological help when they exhibit symptoms such as excessive worry, crying frequently, an increase in irritability, anger, and frequent arguing, wanting to be alone most of the time, feeling anxious or fearful, overwhelmed by sadness, confused, having trouble thinking clearly and concentrating, and difficulty making decisions, increased alcohol and/or substance use, increased physical (aches, pains) complaints such as headaches and trouble with "nerves."

Sometimes emergency supplies are kept in what is called a Bug-out bag. While FEMA does not actually use the term "Bug out bag," calling it instead some variation of a "Go Kit," the idea of having emergency items in a quickly accessible place is common to both FEMA and CDC, though on-line discussions of what items a "bug out bag" should include sometimes cover items such as firearms and great knives that are not specifically suggested by FEMA or CDC.

The theory behind a "bug out bag" is that emergency preparations should include the possibility of Emergency evacuation. Whether fleeing a burning building or hastily packing a car to escape an impending hurricane, flood or dangerous chemical release, rapid departure from a home or workplace environment is always a possibility and FEMA suggests having a Family Emergency Plan for such occasions.

Because family members may not be together when disaster strikes, this plan should include reliable contact information for friends or relatives who live outside of what would be the disaster area for household members to notify they are safe or otherwise communicate with each other. Along with the contact information, FEMA suggests having well-understood local gathering points if a house must be evacuated quickly to avoid the dangers of re-reentering a burning home.

Family and emergency contact information should be printed on cards and put in each family member's backpack or wallet. If family members spend a significant amount of time in a specific location, such as at work or school, FEMA suggests learning the emergency preparation plans for those places. FEMA has a specific form, in English and in Spanish, to help people put together these emergency plans, though it lacks lines for email contact information.

Like children, people with disabilities and other special needs have special emergency preparation needs. While "disability" has a specific meaning for specific organizations such as collecting Social Security benefits, for the purposes of emergency preparedness, the Red Cross uses the term in a broader sense to include people with physical, medical, sensor or cognitive disabilities or the elderly and other special needs populations.

Depending on the particular disability, specific emergency preparations might be required. FEMA's suggestions for people with disabilities includes having copies of prescriptions, charging devices for medical devices such as motorized wheel chairs and a week's supply of medication readily available LINK or in a "go stay kit."

In some instances, lack of competency in English may lead to special preparation requirements and communication efforts for both individuals and responders.

FEMA notes that long term power outages can cause damage beyond the original disaster that can be mitigated with emergency generators or other power sources to provide an Emergency power system.

The United States Department of Energy states that 'homeowners, business owners, and local leaders may have to take an active role in dealing with energy disruptions on their own." This active role may include installing or other procuring generators that are either portable or permanently mounted and run on fuels such as propane or natural gas or gasoline.

Concerns about carbon monoxide poisoning, electrocution, flooding, fuel storage and fire lead even small property owners to consider professional installation and maintenance.

Major institutions like hospitals, military bases and educational institutions often have or are considering extensive backup power systems. Instead of, or in addition to, fuel-based power systems, solar, wind and other alternative power sources may be used. Standalone batteries, large or small, are also used to provide backup charging for electrical systems and devices ranging from emergency lights to computers to cell phones.

Emergency preparedness does not stop at home or at school. The United States Department of Health and Human Services addresses specific emergency preparedness issues hospitals may have to respond to, including maintaining a safe temperature, providing adequate electricity for life support systems and even carrying out evacuations under extreme circumstances.

FEMA encourages all businesses to have businesses to have an emergency response plan and the Small Business Administration specifically advises small business owners to also focus emergency preparedness and provides a variety of different worksheets and resources.

FEMA cautions that emergencies happen while people are travelling as well and provides guidance around emergency preparedness for a range travelers to include commuters (Commuter Emergency Plan) and holiday travelers. 

In particular, Ready.gov has a number of emergency preparations specifically designed for people with cars. These preparations include having a full gas tank, maintaining adequate windshield wiper fluid and other basic car maintenance tips. Items specific to an emergency include:
  • Jumper cables: might want to include flares or reflective triangle
  • Flashlights, to include extra batteries (batteries have less power in colder weather)
  • First Aid Kit, to include any necessary medications, baby formula and diapers if caring for small children
  • Non-perishable food such as canned food (be alert to liquids freezing in colder weather), and protein rich foods like nuts and energy bars
  • Manual can opener
  • At least 1 gallon of water per person a day for at least 3 days (be alert to hazards of frozen water and resultant container rupture)
  • Basic toolkit: pliers, wrench, screwdriver
  • Pet supplies: food and water
  • Radio: battery or hand cranked
  • For snowy areas: cat litter or sand for better tire traction; shovel; ice scraper; warm clothes, gloves, hat, sturdy boots, jacket and an extra change of clothes
  • Blankets or sleeping bags
  • Charged Cell Phone: and car charger

In addition to emergency supplies and training for various situations, FEMA offers advice on how to mitigate disasters. The Agency gives instructions on how to retrofit a home to minimize hazards from a Flood, to include installing a Backflow prevention device, anchoring fuel tanks and relocating electrical panels.

Given the explosive danger posed by natural gas leaks, Ready.gov states unequivocally that "It is vital that all household members know how to shut off natural gas" and that property owners must ensure they have any special tools needed for their particular gas hookups. Ready.gov also notes that "It is wise to teach all responsible household members where and how to shut off the electricity," cautioning that individual circuits should be shut off before the main circuit.

Ready.gov further states that "It is vital that all household members learn how to shut off the water at the main house valve" and cautions that the possibility that rusty valves might require replacement.

Response:
Main article: Disaster response

The response phase of an emergency may commence with Search and Rescue but in all cases the focus will quickly turn to fulfilling the basic humanitarian needs of the affected population. This assistance may be provided by national or international agencies and organizations.

Effective coordination of disaster assistance is often crucial, particularly when many organizations respond and local emergency management agency (LEMA) capacity has been exceeded by the demand or diminished by the disaster itself.

The National Response Framework is a United States government publication that explains responsibilities and expectations of government officials at the local, state, federal, and tribal levels. It provides guidance on Emergency Support Functions that may be integrated in whole or parts to aid in the response and recovery process.

On a personal level the response can take the shape either of a shelter in place or an evacuation.

In a shelter-in-place scenario, a family would be prepared to fend for themselves in their home for many days without any form of outside support. In an evacuation, a family leaves the area by automobile or other mode of transportation, taking with them the maximum amount of supplies they can carry, possibly including a tent for shelter.

If mechanical transportation is not available, evacuation on foot would ideally include carrying at least three days of supplies and rain-tight bedding, a tarpaulin and a bedroll of blankets.

Donations are often sought during this period, especially for large disasters that overwhelm local capacity. Due to efficiencies of scale, money is often the most cost-effective donation if fraud is avoided.

Money is also the most flexible, and if goods are sourced locally then transportation is minimized and the local economy is boosted. Some donors prefer to send gifts in kind, however these items can end up creating issues, rather than helping. One innovation by Occupy Sandy volunteers is to use a donation registry, where families and businesses impacted by the disaster can make specific requests, which remote donors can purchase directly via a web site.

Medical considerations will vary greatly based on the type of disaster and secondary effects. Survivors may sustain a multitude of injuries to include lacerations, burns, near drowning, or crush syndrome.

Recovery:

The recovery phase starts after the immediate threat to human life has subsided. The immediate goal of the recovery phase is to bring the affected area back to normalcy as quickly as possible. During reconstruction it is recommended to consider the location or construction material of the property.

The most extreme home confinement scenarios include war, famine and severe epidemics and may last a year or more. Then recovery will take place inside the home.

Planners for these events usually buy bulk foods and appropriate storage and preparation equipment, and eat the food as part of normal life. A simple balanced diet can be constructed from vitamin pills, whole-meal wheat, beans, dried milk, corn, and cooking oil. Vegetables, fruits, spices and meats, both prepared and fresh-gardened, are included when possible.

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Emergency Medical Services in the United States
YouTube Video: Helicopter EMS Tribute. Daily life as a Flight nurse, flight medic, pilot
YouTube Video: New Drone Ambulance Concept
Pictured Below: Recipients of 2015 Excellence in Emergency Medical Service Awards Honored

In the United States, emergency medical services (EMS) provide out-of-hospital acute medical care and/or transport to definitive care for those in need. They are regulated at the most basic level by the federal government, which sets the minimum standards that all states' EMS providers must meet, and regulated more strictly by individual state governments, which often require higher standards from the services they oversee.

Wide differences in population density, topography, and other conditions can call for different types of EMS systems; consequently, there is often significant variation between the Emergency Medical Services provided in one state and those provided in another.

Organization and funding:

​Land ambulance:

EMS delivery in the US can be based on various models. While most services are, to some degree, publicly funded, the factor which often differentiates services is the manner in which they are operated. EMS systems may be directly operated by the community, or they may fall to a third-party provider, such as a private company. The most common operating models in the U.S. include:

Publicly operated EMS:

In one of the more common publicly operated models, an EMS system is operated directly by the municipality it services. The services themselves may be provided by a local government, or may be the responsibility of the regional (or state) government.

Municipality-operated services may be funded by service fees and supplemented by property taxes. In many such cases, the EMS system is considered to be too small to operate independently, and is organized as a branch of another municipal department, such as the Public Health department.

In small communities that lack a large population or tax-base, such a service may not be able to operate unless it is staffed by community volunteers. In these cases, the volunteer squad may receive some funding from municipal taxes, but is generally heavily reliant on voluntary donations to cover operating expenses.

This provides a significant challenge for volunteer groups, since the training standards for staff must be met, and the vehicle and equipment standards adhered to, while the group does all or most of its own fundraising. Without the presence of dedicated volunteers, however, many small communities in America might be without local EMS systems and would either have no service at all or be forced to rely on service from more distant communities.

Another operating model for publicly operated EMS is what is generally referred to in the industry as the 'third service' option. In this option, rather than being an integral part of (or in some cases, an 'add-on' to) one of the traditional 'emergency' services (fire and police), the service is organized as a separate, free-standing, municipal department, with organization that may be similar to, but operated independently from, either the fire or police departments.

In a variant of this model, the EMS system may be recognized as a legitimate third emergency service, but provided under a contractual agreement with another organization, such as a private company or a hospital, instead of direct operation.

This model is sometimes referred to as the 'public utility' model. This may be a cost-saving measure, or it may be because the community feels that they lack the resident expertise to deal with medical oversight and control issues, and the legal requirements that typically surround an Emergency Medical Service.

In yet another model for publicly operated EMS, the system may be integrated into the operations of another municipal emergency service, such as the local fire department or police department.

This integration may be partial or complete. In the case of partial integration, the EMS staff may share quarters, administrative services, and even command and control with the other service. In the case of full integration, the EMS staff may be fully cross-trained to perform the entry-level function of the other emergency service, whether firefighting or policing. 

Many communities perceive this as providing 'added value' to the community, since municipal workers are fulfilling more than one function, and are less likely to be idle.

Private/for profit EMS:

Ambulance services operating on a private/for profit basis have a long history in the U.S. Often, particularly in smaller communities, ambulance service was seen by the community as a lower priority than police or fire services, and certainly nothing that should require public funding.

Until the professionalization of emergency medical services in the early 1970s, one of the most common providers of ambulance service in the United States was a community's local funeral home. This occurred essentially by default, as hearses were the only vehicles at the time capable of transporting a person lying down.

Funeral home ambulance operations were sometimes supplemented by 'mom and pop' operations, which were not affiliated with funeral homes but rather operated on much the same basis as a taxi service. There were no national standards for ambulance services and staff generally had little, if any, medical training or equipment, leading to a high pre-hospital mortality rate.

Such companies continue to operate this way in some locations, providing non-emergency transport services, fee-for-service emergency service, or contracted emergency ambulance service to municipalities, as in the public utility model.

During the late 1970s and early 1980s, more than 200 private ambulance companies in the U.S. were gradually merged into large regional companies, some of which continue to operate today.

As this trend continued, the result was a few remaining private companies, a handful of regional companies, and two very large multinational companies which currently dominate the entire industry. These services continue to operate in some parts of the U.S., either on a fee-for-service basis to the patient, or by means of contracts with local municipalities.

Such contracts usually result in a fee-for-service operation which is funded by the municipality on a supplementary basis, in exchange for formal guarantees of adequate performance on such issues as staffing, skill sets, resources available, and response times.

Model of care:

The Emergency Medical Service system in the United States typically follows the Anglo-American model (bringing the patient to the hospital), as opposed to the Franco-German model (bringing the hospital to the patient) of service delivery. Apart from a handful of doctors who work on Medevac aircraft or perform training or medical quality assurance, it is extremely uncommon to see a physician deliberately responding to the scene of an emergency.

Air ambulance:

Air ambulance services in the United States can be operated by a variety of sources. Some services are hospital-operated, while others may be operated by Federal, State or local government; or through a variety of departments, including local or State police, the United States Park Service, or fire departments.

Such services may be operated directly by any of these EMS systems, or they may be contracted to a third-party provider, such as an aircraft charter company.

In addition, it is not uncommon for U.S. military helicopters to be pressed into service providing air ambulance support. The vast distances covered by the U.S. mean that while helicopters may be the preferred form of service delivery for 'on-scene' emergencies, fixed wing aircraft, including small jets, are often used for transfers from rural hospitals to tertiary care sites. These aircraft are typically staffed by a mix of personnel including physicians, nurses, and paramedics, and in some cases, by all three.

Publicly operated air ambulance service is supplemented by emergency and non-emergency air transport service, which may be provided by dedicated air ambulance companies, or by aircraft charter companies as a 'sideline' business operation. Air Ambulance companies are not all considered the same. Some are brokers that farm-out the air medical transports other are highly accredited by accrediting organizations like CAMTS.

Standards:
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Staffing:

Ambulances in the United States must be staffed with a minimum of 2 personnel. The level of crew certification varies depending on the jurisdiction the ambulance is operating in. In most areas, the bare minimum is an EMT to provide patient care and an EMR to assist and drive the unit.

This set-up would be classified as a Basic Life Support Unit (BLS) due to the fact that the highest ranking provider cannot perform Advanced Life Support (ALS) interventions. If patient condition warrants, an ALS provider may be summoned to assist and meet the ambulance en route to the hospital.

Other staffing combinations include one EMT and one paramedic (the most common arrangement), or two Paramedics, which are classified in most areas as an Advanced Life Support Unit (ALS). Unlike in Europe, Emergency Physicians do not regularly practice in the field, and only crew ambulances for specialty situations, such as extreme-low-weight infant transports, ECMO or cardiac bypass transports, or unusual situations such as crush injuries necessitating field amputation, or mass casualty/disaster situations.

Employment and pay:

Funding and manpower models: EMS is sometimes but not always provided by volunteers solely. Agencies that were once strictly volunteer have begun supplementing their ranks with compensated members in order to keep up with booming call volumes.

As of 2004, the largest "Private Enterprise" provider of contract EMS services in North America was AMR, or American Medical Response, based in Greenwood Village, Colorado.

The second-largest US EMS provider is Rural/Metro Corporation, based in Scottsdale, Arizona; Rural/Metro Corporation also provides EMS services to parts of Latin America. Like AMR, Rural/Metro provided other transportation services, such as non-emergency transport and "coach", or wheelchair, transportation.

On October 28, 2015, AMR announced that it had finalized the acquisition of Rural/Metro, forming the largest EMS organization in the United States employing nearly 25,000 individuals.

Many colleges and universities now also have their own EMS agencies for their campuses. Collegiate EMS programs vary somewhat from university to university; however, most agencies are fully staffed by student volunteers. Agencies might operate what is called a Quick Response Service (which does not transport patients but acts as a first responder to scenes) providing initial patient assessment and care, or they might operate certified ambulance services staffed with EMTs or Paramedics.

Some groups limit services to within their campus, while others extend services to the surrounding community. Services provided by college and university agencies may include ambulance services, mass-casualty incident response, aero-medical services, and search-and-rescue teams.

While Fire Service in the US is rated based on ISO classes, and fire insurance rates (casualty insurance) are based on those classes, EMS does not receive ratings, nor are there corresponding monetary savings in health or life insurance policies.

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Disaster Response
YouTube Video: FEMA on Hurricane Irma preparations, lessons from Harvey (CBS This Morning  9/6/2017)
Pictured below: Historic Disaster Response to Hurricane Harvey in Texas (FEMA)

Disaster response is the second phase of the disaster management cycle. It consists of a number of elements, for example; warning/evacuation, search and rescue, providing immediate assistance, assessing damage, continuing assistance and the immediate restoration of infrastructure.

The aim of emergency response is to provide immediate assistance to maintain life, improve health and support the morale of the affected population. Such assistance may range from providing specific but limited aid, such as assisting refugees with transport, temporary shelter, and food, to establishing semi-permanent settlement in camps and other locations. It also may involve initial repairs to damaged infrastructure.
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The focus in the response phase is on meeting the basic needs of the people until more permanent and sustainable solutions can be found. The main responsibility to address these needs and respond to a disaster lies with the government or governments in whose territory the disaster has occurred.

In addition, Humanitarian organizations are often strongly present in this phase of the disaster management cycle, particularly in countries where the government lacks the resources to respond adequately to the needs.

Definition:

A "disaster", noun, is defined as a calamitous event, especially one occurring suddenly and causing great loss of life, damage or hardship such as a flood, aircraft crash or an angry person. "Response" is defined (in this context) as: Noun: An answer or reply, as in words or in some action.

The Business Dictionary provide a more comprehensive definition for "disaster response"  as aggregate of decisions and measures to
  1. contain or mitigate the effects of a disastrous event to prevent any further loss of life and/or property,
  2. restore order in its immediate aftermath,
  3. and re-establish normality through reconstruction and re-rehabilitation shortly thereafter. The first and immediate response is called emergency response.

​The Johns Hopkins and the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC) state: "The word disaster implies a sudden overwhelming and unforeseen event. At the household level, a disaster could result in a major illness, death, a substantial economic or social misfortune.

At the community level, it could be a flood, a fire, a collapse of buildings in an earthquake, the destruction of livelihoods, an epidemic or displacement through conflict. When occurring at district or provincial level, a large number of people can be affected."

The level of disaster response depends on a number of factors and particular situation awareness. Studies undertaken by Son, Aziz and Peña-Mora (2007) shows that "initial work demand gradually spreads and increases based on a wide range of variables including scale of disaster, vulnerability of affected area which in turn is affected by population density, site-specific conditions (e.g. exposure to hazardous conditions) and effects of cascading disasters resulting from inter-dependence between elements of critical infrastructure".

In the British Government's Emergency Response and Recovery guidance, disaster response refers to decisions and actions taken in accordance with the strategic, tactical and operational objectives defined by emergency responders. At a high level these will be to protect life, contain and mitigate the impacts of the emergency and create the conditions for a return to normality. Response encompasses the decisions and actions taken to deal with the immediate effects of an emergency.

In many scenarios it is likely to be relatively short and to last for a matter of hours or days—rapid implementation of arrangements for collaboration, co-ordination and communication are, therefore, vital. Response encompasses the effort to deal not only with the direct effects of the emergency itself (e.g. fighting fires, rescuing individuals) but also the indirect effects (e.g. disruption, media interest).

Common objectives for responders are:
  • saving and protecting human life;
  • relieving suffering;
  • containing the emergency – limiting its escalation or spread and mitigating its impacts;
  • providing the public and businesses with warnings, advice and information;
  • protecting the health and safety of responding personnel;
  • safeguarding the environment;
  • as far as reasonably practicable, protecting property;
  • maintaining or restoring critical activities;
  • maintaining normal services at an appropriate level;
  • promoting and facilitating self-help in affected communities;
  • facilitating investigations and inquiries (e.g. by preserving the scene and effective records management);
  • facilitating the recovery of the community (including the humanitarian assistance, economic, infrastructure and environmental impacts);
  • evaluating the response and recovery effort; and
  • identifying and taking action to implement lessons identified.

Disaster response planning:

According to the Business Continuity Institute (BCI), disaster response is most suitably incorporated within an overall Business Continuity Plan. The BCI's Good Practice Guidelines (GPG) (BCI, 2013) highlight that crisis or disaster response cannot be considered as a discrete entity in the case that BCM is employed; based on the premise that BCM is a holistic approach to any high impact incident.

On the other hand, organizations may not use amalgamated risk disciplines and instead utilize a stand-alone disaster response plan.

In either approach, the United States National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 1600 Standard (NFPA, 2010) specify elements of an emergency response, as: defined responsibilities; specific actions to be taken (which must include protective actions for life safety); and communication directives. Within the standard, NFPA recognize that disasters and day-to-day emergencies are characteristically different. Nevertheless, the prescribed response elements are the same.

In support of the NFPA standard, Statoil's (2013) practical application of emergency response is across three distinct "lines" that incorporate NFPA's elements:
  • Line 1 is responsible for the operational management of an incident;
  • line 2, typically housed off-site, is responsible for tactical guidance and additional resource management.
  • Finally, in the case of major incidents, line 3 provides strategic guidance, group resource management, and government and media relations.

While it is impossible to plan for every disaster, crisis or emergency, the Statoil investigation into the terrorist attacks on In Amenas place emphasis on the importance of having a disaster response. The report concludes that a disaster response framework may be utilized in an array of disaster situations, such as that at In Amenas.

Organizations:
​
The United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA); is responsible for bringing together humanitarian actors to ensure a coherent response to emergencies. OCHA plays a key role in operational coordination in crisis situations. This includes assessing situations and needs; agreeing common priorities; developing common strategies to address issues such as negotiating access, mobilizing funding and other resources; clarifying consistent public messaging; and monitoring progress.

In Canada, GlobalMedic was established in 1998 as a non-sectarian humanitarian-aid NGO to provide disaster relief services to large scale catastrophes around the world

Time magazine recognized the work of GlobalMedic in its 2010 Time 100 issue. It has a roster of over 1,000 volunteers from across Canada that includes professional rescuers, police officers, firefighters and paramedics who donate their time to respond to international disasters.

GlobalMedic personnel are divided into Rapid Response Teams (RRTs) that operate rescue units, Water Purification Units (WPUs) designed to provide safe drinking water; and Emergency Medical Units (EMUs) that use inflatable field hospitals to provide emergency medical treatment. Since 2004, GlobalMedic teams have deployed to over 60 humanitarian disasters around the world.

In the US, the Federal Emergency Management Agency coordinates federal operational and logistical disaster response capability needed to save and sustain lives, minimize suffering, and protect property in a timely and effective manner in communities that become overwhelmed by disasters.

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention offer information for specific types of emergencies, such as disease outbreaks, natural disasters and severe weather, as well as chemical and radiation accidents.

Also, the Emergency Preparedness and Response Program of the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health develops resources to address responder safety and health during responder and recovery operations.

Among volunteers, the American Red Cross is chartered by Congress in 1900 to lead and coordinate non-profit efforts. They are supported by disaster relief organizations from many religious denominations and community service agencies. Licensed amateur radio operators support most volunteer organizations, and are often affiliated with the American Radio Relay League (ARRL).

Disaster Response Organizations:

A great deal of assistance in the wake of any disaster comes from charities, disaster response and non-governmental organizations. See:
Disaster response technologies:
See also: Category:Emergency management software

​Smart Emergency Response System (SERS) prototype was built in the SmartAmerica Challenge 2013-2014, a United States government initiative. SERS has been created by a team of nine organizations led by MathWorks. The project was featured at the White House in June 2014 and described by Todd Park (U.S. Chief Technology Officer) as an exemplary achievement.

The SmartAmerica initiative challenges the participants to build cyber-physical systems as a glimpse of the future to save lives, create jobs, foster businesses, and improve the economy. SERS primarily saves lives.

The system provides the survivors and the emergency personnel with information to locate and assist each other during a disaster. SERS allows to submit help requests to a MATLAB-based mission center connecting first responders, apps, search-and-rescue dogs, a 6-feet-tall humanoid, robots, drones, and autonomous aircraft and ground vehicles.

The command and control center optimizes the available resources to serve every incoming requests and generates an action plan for the mission. The Wi-Fi network is created on the fly by the drones equipped with antennas. In addition, the autonomous rotorcrafts, planes, and ground vehicles are simulated with Simulink and visualized in a 3D environment (Google Earth) to unlock the ability to observe the operations on a mass scale.

The International Charter Space and Major Disasters provides for the charitable retasking of satellite assets, providing coverage from 15 space agencies, etc. which is wide albeit contingent. It focuses on the beginning of the disaster cycle, when timely data is of the essence.

See also:








Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) @ FEMA.Gov
YouTube Video: How has FEMA changed in the ten years since Hurricane Katrina? by (PBS NewsHour)
Pictured below: FEMA Assistance FAQS

The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) is an agency of the United States Department of Homeland Security, initially created by Presidential Reorganization Plan No. 3 of 1978 and implemented by two Executive Orders on April 1, 1979. 

The agency's primary purpose is to coordinate the response to a disaster that has occurred in the United States and that overwhelms the resources of local and state authorities. The governor of the state in which the disaster occurs must declare a state of emergency and formally request from the president that FEMA and the federal government respond to the disaster.

The only exception to the state's gubernatorial declaration requirement occurs when an emergency or disaster takes place on federal property or to a federal asset—for example, the 1995 bombing of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, or the Space Shuttle Columbia in the 2003 return-flight disaster.

While on-the-ground support of disaster recovery efforts is a major part of FEMA's charter, the agency provides state and local governments with experts in specialized fields and funding for rebuilding efforts and relief funds for infrastructure by directing individuals to access low-interest loans, in conjunction with the Small Business Administration.

In addition to this, FEMA provides funds for training of response personnel throughout the United States and its territories as part of the agency's preparedness effort.

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Firefighters in the United States including Volunteer Fire Departments
Below: YouTube Videos from the NBC TV Series "Chicago Fire": ​Pictured below: Firefighters fighting a (Clockwise from upper left) a wildfire; house fire; apartment building fire; high-rise building fire.
Internationally, A firefighter (also fireman and firewoman) is a rescuer extensively trained in firefighting, primarily to extinguish hazardous fires that threaten life, property and/or the environment.

The complexity of modern, industrialized life has created an increase in the skills needed in firefighting technology. The fire service, also known in some countries as the fire brigade or fire department, is one of the three main emergency services. From urban areas to aboard ships, firefighters have become ubiquitous around the world.

The goals of firefighting are (in order of priority):
  1. Save life
  2. Save property
  3. Save the environment

The skills required for safe operations are regularly practiced during training evaluations throughout a firefighter's career. In the United States, the preeminent fire training and standards organization is the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA). Initial firefighting skills are taught during a local, regional or state approved fire academy.

Depending on the requirements of a department, additional skills and certifications such as technical rescue and pre-hospital medicine may also be acquired at this time.

Firefighters work closely with other emergency response agencies such as the police and emergency medical service. A firefighter's role may overlap with both. Fire investigators or fire marshals investigate the cause of a fire. If the fire was caused by arson or negligence, their work will overlap with law enforcement. Firefighters also frequently provide some degree of emergency medical service, in addition to working with full-time paramedics.

The basic tasks of firefighters include: fire suppression, rescue, fire prevention, basic first aid, and investigations. Firefighting is further broken down into skills which include: size-up, extinguishing, ventilation, search and rescue, salvage, containment, mop up and overhaul.

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Firefighting in the United States:

As of 2014, there are around 1,134,400 firefighters serving in 27,198 fire departments nationwide and responding to emergencies from 58,150 fire stations. Of those firefighters, 31% or 346,150 were career firefighters and 69% or 788,250 were volunteers.

Click on any of the following blue hyperlinks for more about Firefighting in the United States: ___________________________________________________________________________

Volunteer Fire Department:

A volunteer fire department (VFD) is a fire department composed of volunteers who perform fire suppression and other related emergency services for a local jurisdiction. A volunteer fire department can act in support of a career or otherwise paid fire department, or it can act as the primary response agency in an area. This varies between jurisdictions.

The term "volunteer" contrasts with career firefighters who are fully compensated for their services. Some volunteer firefighters may be part of a combination fire department that utilizes both full-time and volunteer firefighters. In this way, a station can be staffed 24 hours between volunteer and career firefighters. Both provide essential staffing on apparatuses during their assigned staffing hours.

The term "volunteer" may also be used in reference to a group of part-time or on-call firefighters who may have other occupations when not engaged in occasional firefighting. Although they may have "volunteered" to become members and to respond to the call for help, they may be compensated as employees during the time they are responding to or attending an emergency scene, and possibly for training. An on-call firefighter may also volunteer time for other non-emergency duties as well (training, fundraising, equipment maintenance, etc.).

Volunteer firefighters go through some or all of the same training as career personnel do; this too varies between jurisdictions. When volunteers join a department, they often sign up for firefighting classes and other certifications that teach them what they need to know to become a volunteer firefighter. Examples of these certifications include Firefighter I, Firefighter II, S-130/S-190, Emergency Medical Responder, and Emergency Medical Technician.

Some departments also require recruits to complete a certain amount of in-house training. During this time, often called the probationary period, the recruit is known as a probationary firefighter, or "probie". Once the probationary period is complete, the member is eligible to become a full firefighter.

Volunteer Fire Departments in the United States:

According to the National Fire Protection Association, 69 percent of firefighters in the United States are volunteers. The Volunteer Firefighter Alliance represents Volunteer Firefighters across the U.S., as well the National Volunteer Fire Council represents the fire and emergency services on a national level, providing advocacy, information, resources, and programs to support volunteer first responders. The NVFC includes 49 state-based firefighter associations such as the Firemen's Association of the State of New York (FASNY), which provides information, education and training for the volunteer fire and emergency medical services throughout New York State.

In the United States, the Department of Labor (DOL) classifies volunteer firefighters as firefighters that receive no compensation or nominal fees up to 20% of the compensation a full-time firefighter would receive in the same capacity.

The DOL allows volunteer firefighters to receive benefits such as worker's compensation, health insurance, life insurance, disability insurance, pension plans, length of service awards, and property tax relief. DOL-defined volunteer firefighters may be paid nominal fees on a per call basis, per shift basis, or various service requirements, but may not be compensated based on productivity such as with an hourly wage.

The terms "part paid" and "paid on-call" refer to firefighters that are receiving some compensation less than the compensation a full-time firefighter would receive. It may often refer to volunteer firefighters that do not qualify as volunteers under the United States Department of Labor. They may also volunteer time for training, public education, fund-raising, and other non-emergency department related activities.

Financial Support:

A VFD may be financially supported by taxes raised in a city, town, county, fire district, or other governmental entity, as well as corporate and other private donations, federal grants, and other assistance from auxiliary members, or firefighters' associations.

With these funds the VFD acquires and operates the firefighting apparatus, equips and trains the firefighters, maintains the firehouse, and possibly also covers insurance, worker's compensation, and other post-injury or retirement benefits. A VFD (or its governing entity) may also contract with other nearby departments to cover each other in a mutual aid (or automatic aid) pact as a means for assisting each other with equipment and manpower, when necessary.

Expanded Duties:

Depending upon the location and availability of other services, a VFD may be responsible for controlling structure fires as well as forest fires. Because it may be the only emergency services department for some distance, a rural VFD may also be fortunate to include community first responders, emergency medical technicians, Hazardous Materials response, and other specially qualified rescue personnel.

Law enforcement officers may also be trained in these related duties and overlap with the VFD. The VFD may also have duties as the local fire inspectors, arson investigators, and as fire safety and prevention education, in addition to being the local civil defense or disaster relief liaison.

A volunteer fire department is normally reached the same way as other emergency services, such as by calling 9-1-1 or 1-1-2. A central dispatcher then calls out the VFD, often through equipment such as pagers, radios, or loud signals, such as a fire siren. Average response times are longer than with full-time services because the members must come from different distances to the station or to the incident.

Such departments often have a fixed number of firefighters on staff at any given point in time, which sometimes equals the minimal numbers recommended. Some states allow the use of Length of Service Award Programs (LOSAPS) to provide these volunteer departments with a tool to assist in recruiting and retaining members. LOSAPS are simple programs that can be implemented with minimal taxpayer expense.

Some volunteer fire departments allow the use of Courtesy lights or emergency lights and sirens by its members. In most states that allow both lights and sirens, this is a red light and siren that gives the responding member the same privileges as other emergency vehicles. In other jurisdictions, this may be a green or blue light without a siren. 

The use of such equipment varies from fire district to fire district based on need for fast response, distance that members live from the fire station, the size and amount of other traffic in the fire district as well as local and state law.

Some departments restrict or prohibit use of such emergency lights, even when allowed by state law, due to the increased risk of traffic accidents involving volunteers responding in emergency mode. In some states, volunteer firefighters and EMTs are eligible to receive specialty license plates for personal vehicles that identify them as trained emergency services personnel.

Training:

Operational volunteer fire department members receive some form of training, either in a formal or informal setting, depending on the state and regulatory authority. The level and type of basic and specialty training varies across the country.

The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) has several published standards for fire fighter qualifications and training, including Standard for Fire Service Professional Qualifications Accreditation and Certification Systems, and Fire Fighter Professional Qualifications . These standards apply to both volunteer and career fire fighters.

New members are referred to as "recruits," "rookies," "probies" (short for "probationary"), or even "red hats" in some departments that require the recruit to wear special gear or markings (such as a red helmet in some departments) to denote their ranking. Some departments allow (or even require) new recruits to ride along on fire apparatus as observers before undergoing the rigors of further fire training.

Fire fighters typically progress through formal Fire Fighter I and Fire Fighter II training in accordance with national standards.

Specialty training can include wildland firefighting, technical rescue, swift water rescue, hazardous materials response, vehicle extrication, FAST team, fire instructor, fire officer and others.

"Open House":

A VFD may hold an "open house" at their station. The event serves many purposes including demonstration, training, drill, fundraising and recruitment. There is no particular format for the VFD open house. It can be formal or informal. The goal is to get public involvement in the VFD efforts. It is recommended that the open house should include demonstrations of equipment and show and tell.

This allows the public to understand how the volunteers are organized in their local community and it is used as a public relations tool. The combination of demonstrations and drills allow the public and prospect volunteers to see volunteer fire fighters in action while they are participating in the practices.

See also:​







Christian Humanitarian Aid Groups
YouTube Video: Foreign Policy Explained, Ep. 10: Does Humanitarian Aid Work?
​Pictured below: Logos of Christian Aid Groups

Christian humanitarian aid is work performed by Christian non-governmental organizations (NGOs) to alleviate the suffering of people around the world. Charity is a concept of great importance in Christianity. Humanitarian aid occurs in areas where some churches choose to invest time and money in the spirit of compassion.

Origins:

The modern concept of Christian humanitarian aid is based on teachings from the Bible. Charity and providing assistance to the poor are concepts established in the Old Testament. According to Exodus, part of one's tithe was devoted to the needy (orphans, widows, foreigners).

In the New Testament, Jesus taught much about the subject of charity. In the Sermon on the Mount, he called for people to help not only friends but also enemies, as well as those rejected by society, such as people with disabilities.

Dating back as early as the Middle Ages, Catholic monasteries and monastic orders have a long tradition of providing charity, asylum, and assistance to the poor. Protestant churches established the Department of Deacons responsible for helping the poor. Missionary societies of the 18th and 19th centuries often offered humanitarian assistance in addition to their main activity of evangelism.

In the 19th century, the first Christian non-governmental organizations (NGOs) began emerging. YMCA, a Protestant NGO, was created in 1844 in London. Caritas, a Catholic NGO, was founded in Cologne in 1897. The entrepreneurial culture of Evangelical churches also led to their creation of multiple NGOs.

Like the humanitarian movement, Christian NGOs attracted more attention in the 1970s. Some Christian NGOs, such as those run by evangelical doctors providing medical assistance in impoverished countries, are recognized for their contributions to development.

Features and Benefits:

There is no universal definition of these organizations. A Christian humanitarian NGO has at least one of the following traits:
  • Affiliation with a Christian religious organization
  • Explicit references to a Christian religion in its statutes
  • Financial support from a Christian religious organization
  • Selection of its Board of Directors or teams based on Christian principles or religious affiliation
  • Decision-making based on Christian religious principles

Affiliation with local Christian churches across the world often make it possible for Christian NGOs to work in countries or regions that are otherwise difficult for governmental or international organizations to access. The international network of many Christian religions allows their NGOs to gather significant funding and publicity to promote their humanitarian actions across the world.

Results and Budgets:

In 2007, Christian NGOs comprised 57.4% of the NGOs affiliated with the United Nations.

According to a British study by Elizabeth Ferris, published in 2005 in the periodical International Review of the Red Cross", Christian NGOs have large budgets and provide considerable financial support worldwide. This same study gives the following figures:
Catholicism:
Examples of Catholic Humanitarian NGOs:
Protestantism:
Examples of Protestant Humanitarian NGO:
  • Some sections of the YMCA.

Evangelical Christianity:

For Evangelical Christians, humanitarian aid is a call from God to participate in the relief of suffering. Therefore, many believers choose to give their time, talent, and money to help the poor in their country or abroad.

In some NGOs, such as Mercy Ships, health professionals must pay substantial tuition fees in addition to working for free.

Many Christian NGO web sites, such as those of Mercy Ships and World Vision, aid must be provided to all who need it without discrimination based on religion. According to Sébastien Fath,

Evangelical churches and their respective NGOs develop an international humanitarian entrepreneurship that influences policy decisions. Therefore, they are unavoidable geopolitical players in the humanitarian field.

Examples of Evangelical Christian NGO Humanitarian:
Problems and critics:
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  • Conflicts of collaboration have occurred between Catholic NGOs and non-confessional NGOs in the fight against AIDS, mainly because of different views on the use of condoms.
  • In Bangladesh, some Christian NGOs are criticized for their activity of evangelism. According to the sociologist Geoffrey Martin, there is no overall policy, but some employees of Christian NGOs distribute bibles to the people they assist. Evangelical aid has been criticized by more traditional Christian NGOs because they have not separated evangelism and humanitarian aid, which could affect all Christian humanitarian NGOs.
  • It has been difficult for some Christian and Muslim NGOs to collaborate.
  • In areas of armed conflict, some Christian NGOs have been criticized for not respecting the principle of neutrality.
  • Some have criticized the actions of Mother Teresa as "an imperialist enterprise of the Catholic Church, against an Eastern population, in an oriental city" and a "cult of suffering" little concerned about hygiene .
  • According to Tamsin Bradley, who performed a study in Rajasthan (India), faith and compassion occasionally results in members of Christian NGOs overlooking the actual needs of people they assist, as well as their long-term needs.

See Also:






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Amnesty International Pictured below: Analyzing Amnesty International’s Urgent Action Database
Amnesty International (commonly known as Amnesty or AI) is a London-based non-governmental organization focused on human rights. The organization says it has more than seven million members and supporters around the world.

The stated mission of the organization is to campaign for "a world in which every person enjoys all of the human rights enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and other international human rights instruments."

Amnesty International was founded in London in 1961, following the publication of the article "The Forgotten Prisoners" in The Observer on 28 May 1961, by the lawyer Peter Benenson.

Amnesty draws attention to human rights abuses and campaigns for compliance with international laws and standards. It works to mobilize public opinion to generate pressure on governments that let abuse take place.

Amnesty considers capital punishment to be "the ultimate, irreversible denial of human rights." The organization was awarded the 1977 Nobel Peace Prize for its "defense of human dignity against torture," and the United Nations Prize in the Field of Human Rights in 1978.

In the field of international human rights organizations, Amnesty has the third longest history, after the International Federation for Human Rights, and broadest name recognition, and is believed by many to set standards for the movement as a whole.

Click on any of the following blue hyperlinks for more  about Amnesty International:







Universal Declaration of Human Rights (United Nations)Pictured below: Eleanor Roosevelt with the Spanish language version of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) is a historic document that was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly at its 183rd session on 10 December 1948 as Resolution 217 at the Palais de Chaillot in Paris, France.

Of the then 58 members of the United Nations, 48 voted in favor, none against, eight abstained, and two did not vote.

The Declaration consists of 30 articles affirming an individual's rights which, although not legally binding in themselves, have been elaborated in subsequent international treaties, economic transfers, regional human rights instruments, national constitutions, and other laws.

The Declaration was the first step in the process of formulating the International Bill of Human Rights, which was completed in 1966, and came into force in 1976, after a sufficient number of countries had ratified them.

Some legal scholars have argued that because countries have constantly invoked the Declaration for more than 50 years, it has become binding as a part of customary international law.

However, in the United States, the Supreme Court in Sosa v. Alvarez-Machain (2004), concluded that the Declaration "does not of its own force impose obligations as a matter of international law." Courts of other countries have also concluded that the Declaration is not in and of itself part of domestic law.

Click on any of the following blue hyperlinks for more about The Universal  Declaration of Human Rights:







International Federation for Human Rights (IFHR)Pictured below: #70 - International Federation for Human Rights (FIDH)
The International Federation for Human Rights (French: Fédération internationale des ligues des droits de l'homme; FIDH) is a non-governmental federation for human rights organizations.

Founded in 1922, FIDH is the second oldest international human rights organisation worldwide after Anti-Slavery International (see next topic). As of 2016, the organization is made up of 184 member organisations in over 100 countries.

FIDH is nonpartisan, nonsectarian, and independent of any government. Its core mandate is to promote respect for all the rights set out in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights.

FIDH coordinates and supports collaborations with intergovernmental organisations.

FIDH was established in 1922, when it united ten national organizations. It is now a federation of 178 human rights organizations in nearly 100 countries. FIDH coordinates and supports the activities of its member organizations, at the local, regional and international levels. FIDH is not linked to any party or religion, and is independent.

FIDH has a consultative status before the United Nations, UNESCO and the Council of Europe, and observer status before the African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights, the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie and the International Labour Organization.

FIDH also has "regular contact" with the following:
FIDH's mandate "is to contribute to the respect of all the rights defined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights." It aims to make "effective improvements in the protection of victims, the prevention of Human Rights violations and the sanction of their perpetrators."

FIDH's  priorities are established by its World Congress and International Board (22 members) with the support of its International Secretariat (45 staff members).

Click on any of the following blue hyperlinks for more about the International Federation for Human Rights:






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Anti-Slavery International​Pictured below: Twitter: 10 million children are in #slavery around the world today. Their futures are locked away http://www.antislavery.org/unlock  #AntiSlaveryDay
Anti-Slavery International (ASI) is an international non-governmental organization, registered charity and a lobby group, based in the United Kingdom. Founded in 1839, it is the world's oldest international human rights organization. It works exclusively against slavery and related abuses.

ASI owes its origins to the radical element of an older Anti-Slavery Society, known as the "Agency Committee of the Society for the Mitigation and Gradual Abolition of Slavery Throughout the British Dominions", which had substantially achieved abolition of slavery in the British Empire.

A successor organisation, the British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society was then created to campaign against the practice of slavery in other countries. In 1990 it was relaunched as "Anti-Slavery International", which works to combat slavery and related abuse.

Overview:

Founded in 1839, it is the world’s oldest international human rights organisation and bases its work on the United Nations treaties against slavery.

It has consultative status with the United Nations Economic and Social Council and observer status at the International Labour Organization. It is a non-religious, non-political independent organisation.

Anti-Slavery International works closely with partner organisations from around the world to tackle all forms of slavery.

Modern-day Slavery:
Main article: Contemporary slavery

Human trafficking is the illegal transportation of kidnapped women, children, and men across international borders in order to put them into slavery at the destination. This form of modern slavery is one of the most common and may affect the most people: it is estimated that between 500,000 and 800,000 victims enter the trade each year.

Click on any of the following blue hyperlinks for more about  Anti-Slavery International:







Human Rights in the United States Pictured below: Human Rights Worldwide Threatened by Trump's 'Toxic Agenda'
Human rights in the United States comprise a series of rights which are legally protected by the Constitution of the United States, including the amendments, state constitutions, conferred by treaty and customary international law, and enacted legislatively through Congress, state legislatures, and state referenda and citizen's initiatives.

Federal courts in the United States have jurisdiction over international human rights laws as a federal question, arising under international law, which is part of the law of the United States.

​The Federal Government of the United States has, through a ratified constitution, guaranteed unalienable rights to citizens of the country, and to some degree, non-citizens.

These rights evolved over time through constitutional amendments, supported by legislation and judicial precedent.

Along with the rights themselves, the periphery of the population granted these rights has expanded over time. Today, the United States has a vibrant civil society and strong constitutional protections for many civil and political rights.

On a number of human rights issues, the United States has been internationally criticized for its human rights record, including:
Some observers give the U.S. high to fair marks on human rights, while others charge it with a persistent pattern of human rights violations.

Click on any of the following blue hyperlinks for more about Human Rights in the United States:







United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) Pictured below: The UNICEF Clubs program is the youth led program of the UNICEF UNITE  grassroots movement rooted in a belief that everyone in the United States have a vital role to play as the voice for children everywhere. UNICEF Clubs partner with UNICEF USA to activate their local community by advocating, building community, fundraising, and speaking out for UNICEF's child survival work in over 190 countries. It is UNICEF USA's goal to empower youth in the United States with the resources and skills to be effective global citizens - thinking globally and acting locally for the world's most vulnerable children.
Not refugee children. Not migrant children. They’re #childrenfirst. Let’s #IMAGINE a world where ALL children have the same rights and opportunities. Together, we can give a fair chance #foreverychild. Subscribe to UNICEF here: http://bit.ly/1ltTE3m

The official UNICEF YouTube channel is your primary destination for the latest news updates from the frontline, documentaries, celebrity appeals, and more about our work to realize the rights of every child.

Click on any of the  following blue hyperlinks to see all of our latest trending videos:
The United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), originally known as the United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund, was created by the United Nations General Assembly on 11 December 1946, to provide emergency food and healthcare to children and mothers in countries that had been devastated by World War II.

The Polish physician Ludwik Rajchman is widely regarded as the founder of UNICEF and served as its first chairman from 1946 to 1950, when he had to flee the United States in the wake of McCarthyism. Rajchman is to this day the only person that served as UNICEF's Chairman for longer than 2 years.

On Rajchman's suggestion, the American Maurice Pate was appointed its first executive director, serving from 1947 until his death in 1965.

In 1950, UNICEF's mandate was extended to address the long-term needs of children and women in developing countries everywhere. In 1953 it became a permanent part of the United Nations System, and the words "international" and "emergency" were dropped from the organization's name, though it retained the original acronym, "UNICEF".

UNICEF relies on contributions from governments and private donors. UNICEF's total income for 2015 was US$5,009,557,471. Governments contribute two-thirds of the organization's resources. Private groups and individuals contribute the rest through national committees.

It is estimated that 92 per cent of UNICEF revenue is distributed to program services. UNICEF's programs emphasize developing community-level services to promote the health and well-being of children. UNICEF was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1965 and the Prince of Asturias Award of Concord in 2006.

Most of UNICEF's work is in the field, with a presence in 190 countries and territories. UNICEF's network of over 150 country offices, headquarters and other offices, and 34 National Committees carry out UNICEF's mission through programs developed with host governments. Seven regional offices provide technical assistance to country offices as needed.

UNICEF's Supply Division is based in Copenhagen and serves as the primary point of distribution for such essential items as vaccines, antiretroviral medicines for children and mothers with HIV, nutritional supplements, emergency shelters, family reunification, and educational supplies.

A 36-member executive board establishes policies, approves programs and oversees administrative and financial plans. The executive board is made up of government representatives who are elected by the United Nations Economic and Social Council, usually for three-year terms.

Governance:

Each country office carries out UNICEF's mission through a unique program of cooperation developed with the host government. This five-year program focuses on practical ways to realize the rights of children and women.

Regional offices guide this work and provide technical assistance to country offices as needed.

Overall management and administration of the organization takes place at headquarters, where global policy on children is shaped. Guiding and monitoring all of UNICEF's work is an Executive Board made up of 36 members who are government representatives.

The Board establishes policies, approve programs and decide on administrative and financial plans and budgets. Executive Board's work is coordinated by the Bureau, comprising the President and four Vice-Presidents, each officer representing one of the five regional groups.

These five officers, each one representing one of the five regional groups, are elected by the Executive Board each year from among its members, with the presidency rotating among the regional groups on an annual basis.

As a matter of custom, permanent members of the Security Council do not serve as officers of the Executive Board. Office of the Secretary of the Executive Board supports and services the Executive Board. It is responsible for maintaining an effective relationship between the Executive Board and the UNICEF secretariat, and helps to organize the field visits of the Executive Board.

UNICEF national committees:
​See also: List of UNICEF National Committees

There are national committees in 38 [industrialized] countries, each established as an independent local non-governmental organization. The national committees raise funds from the public sector.

UNICEF is funded entirely by voluntary contributions, and the National Committees collectively raise around one-third of UNICEF's annual income. This comes through contributions from corporations, civil society organizations around six million individual donors worldwide.

Promotion and fundraising:
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In the United States, Nepal and some other countries, UNICEF is known for its "Trick-Or-Treat for UNICEF" program in which children collect money for UNICEF from the houses they trick-or-treat on Halloween night, sometimes instead of candy.

UNICEF is present in 191 countries and territories around the world, but not involved in nine others (Bahamas, Brunei, Cyprus, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Malta, Mauritius, Monaco, and Singapore).

Many people in developed countries first hear about UNICEF's work through the activities of one of the 36 National Committees for UNICEF. These non-governmental organizations (NGO) are primarily responsible for fundraising, selling UNICEF greeting cards and products, creating private and public partnerships, advocating for children's rights, and providing other support. The US Fund for UNICEF is the oldest of the national committees, founded in 1947.

On 19 April 2007, Grand Duchess Maria Teresa of Luxembourg was appointed UNICEF Eminent Advocate for Children, in which role she has visited Brazil (2007), China (2008), and Burundi (2009).

In 2009, the British retailer Tesco used "Change for Good" as advertising, which is trademarked by UNICEF for charity usage but not for commercial or retail use. This prompted the agency to say, "it is the first time in Unicef's history that a commercial entity has purposely set out to capitalize on one of our campaigns and subsequently damage an income stream which several of our programs for children are dependent on".

They went on to call on the public "who have children’s welfare at heart, to consider carefully who they support when making consumer choices".

In 2013 William Armstrong was the first British male to take on the 1,600-kilometre (990 mi) JOGLE solo unaided challenge raising funds and creating a media frenzy at the time. Many ambassadors including Hollywood actor Ewan McGregor were big fans of his quest to promote UNICEF.

Sponsorship:
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On 7 September 2006, an agreement between UNICEF and the Spanish Catalan association football club FC Barcelona was reached whereby the club would donate €1.5 million per year to the organization for five years.

As part of the agreement, FC Barcelona would wear the UNICEF logo on the front of their uniforms in the colour yellow (as seen in the picture on the right of Lionel Messi). 

This was the first time a football club sponsored an organization rather than the other way around. It was also the first time in FC Barcelona's history that they have had another organization's name across the front of their uniform. In 2016, the team signed a new four-year sponsorship deal with UNICEF guaranteeing the organization £1.58 million per year and free advertising.

In January 2007 UNICEF struck a partnership with Canada's national tent pegging team. The team was officially re-flagged as "UNICEF Team Canada", and its riders wear UNICEF's logo in competition, and team members promote and raise funds for UNICEF's campaign against childhood HIV-AIDS.

When the team became the 2008 tent pegging world champions, UNICEF's flag was raised alongside the Canadian flag at the games, the first time in the history of international Grand Prix equestrian competition that a non-state flag has flown over the medal podium.

The Swedish club Hammarby IF followed the Spanish and Canadian lead on 14 April 2007, also raising funds for UNICEF and displaying the UNICEF name on their sportswear. The Danish football club Brøndby IF participated in a similar arrangement from 2008 to 2013.

In 2007, Race driver Jacques Villeneuve has occasionally placed the UNICEF logo on the #27 Bill Davis Racing pickup truck in the NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series.

Australian A-League club Sydney FC announced they would also enter into a partnership with UNICEF raising funds for children in the Asia-Pacific region, and would also display the UNICEF logo for the remainder of the 2011-12 A-League season.

In Botswana, UNICEF has funded the development of new state-of-the-art HIV/AIDS education for every schoolchild in Botswana from nonprofit organization TeachAIDS.

UNICEF announced a landmark partnership with Scottish club Rangers F.C. UNICEF partnered with the Rangers Charity Foundation and pledged to raise £300,000 by 2011.

In 2010, UNICEF created a partnership with Phi Iota Alpha, making them the first Greek Lettered Organization UNICEF has ever worked with. In 2011, Phi Iota Alpha raised over $20,000 for the Tap Project and the Trick or Treats for UNICEF Campaign.

In 2013, they agreed a contract with Greek association football champions Olympiacos F.C. who will show the organization's logo on the front of their shirts.

UNICEF Kid Power:
​Main article: UNICEF Kid Power

Started in 2015, Kid Power is a division of UNICEF that was created as an effort to involve kids in helping other kids in need. UNICEF Kid Power developed the world's first Wearable for Good, called Kid Power Bands, which is a kids’ fitness tracker bracelet that connects to a smartphone app.

The app lets users complete missions, which counts total steps and awards points. The points then unlock funding from partners, which is then used by UNICEF to deliver lifesaving packets of therapeutic food to severely malnourished children around the world.

Trick-or-Treat UNICEF box:
Main article: Trick-or-Treat for UNICEF

Since 1950, when a group of children in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, donated $17 which they received on Halloween to help post-World War II victims, the Trick-or-Treat UNICEF box has become a tradition in North America during the fall.

These small orange boxes are handed to children at schools and other locations before 31 October. As of 2012, the Trick-or-Treat for UNICEF campaign has collected approximately C$91 million in Canada and over US$167 million in the U.S.

Cartoons for Children's Rights:
Main article: Cartoons for Children's Rights

In 1994, UNICEF held a summit encouraging animation studios around the world to create individual animated spots demonstrating the international rights of children. Cartoons for Children's Rights is the collection of animated shorts based on UNICEF's Convention on the Rights of the Child.

Corporate partnership:

To raise money to support its Education and Literacy Programs, UNICEF collaborates with companies worldwide – international as well as small- and medium-sized businesses.

Since 2004, the organization has been supported by Montblanc, working collaboratively to help the world's children getting better access to education.

According to Vaccine News Daily, Merck & Co. partnered with UNICEF in June 2013 to decrease maternal mortality, HIV and tuberculosis prevalence in South Africa. Merck's program "Merck for Mothers" will give US$500 million worldwide for programs that improve health for expectant mothers and their children.

In May 2010, Crucell N.V. announced an additional US$110 million award from UNICEF to supply its pentavalent pediatric vaccine Quinvaxem to the developing world.

Corporate Social Responsibility:

UNICEF works directly with companies to improve their business practices, bringing them in line with obligations under international law, and ensuring that they respect children's rights in the realms of the marketplace, workplace, and the community.

In 2012, UNICEF worked with Save the Children and The United Nations Global Compact to develop the Children's Rights and Business Principles and now these guidelines form the basis UNICEF's advice to companies.

UNICEF works with companies seeking to improve their social sustainability by guiding them through a due diligence process where issues throughout their supply chain, such as child labor, can be identified and actions to ratify them are put in place.

Girl Star:

​The Girl Star project is a series of films which documents stories of girls from the most disadvantaged communities across five northern states in India who, through via education, have managed to break socio-economic constraints to make a success of their lives and become self-sufficient.

These young women have grown to become role models in their communities, inspiring younger girls to go to school and continue their education. They have selected professions from the most conventional such as teaching and nursing, to the most unconventional like archery, bee-keeping, scrap management, often entering what has traditionally been a man's domain. Girl Star is also one of UNICEF's most known projects.

Kids United:

Kids United is a French musical group of four children (six children when the group was formed) born between 2000 and 2007. It has been created to support UNICEF campaigns and is sponsored by Hélène Ségara and Corneille, two Francophone singers.

The first album Un monde meilleur (A better world) was launched on Universal Children's Day in 2015, it received gold certification in France. The second album Tout le bonheur du monde was even certified 2x platinum.

U-report:

U-Report is a free SMS social monitoring tool and real-time information system for community participation, designed to strengthen community-led development, citizen engagement, and positive change. SMS polls and alerts are sent out to U-reporters and real-time response information is collected.

​Results and ideas are shared back with the community. Issues polled include among others health, education, water, sanitation and hygiene, youth unemployment, HIV/ AIDS, disease outbreaks; social welfare sectors. The initiative is currently operational in 41 countries and covers more than 3 million people.

​Celebrity ambassadors:
Main article: List of UNICEF Goodwill Ambassadors

​UNICEF Ambassadors are leaders in the entertainment industry, representing the fields of film, television, music, sports and beyond. They help raise awareness of the needs of children, and use their talent and fame to fund-raise, advocate, and educate on behalf of UNICEF.

Facilities:

​UNICEF World Warehouse:

The old UNICEF World Warehouse is a large facility in Denmark, which hosts UNICEF deliverable goods as well as co-hosts emergency goods for United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC).

Until 2012 the facilities was a 25,000m2 warehouse at Marmormolen in Copenhagen. With construction of a 45,000m2 UN City that is to house all UN activities in Copenhagen under one roof, the warehouse service has been relocated to outer parts of the Freeport of Copenhagen.

​The facility houses the UNICEF Supply Division which manages strategic transport hubs in Dubai, Panama and Shanghai. The warehouse contains a variety of items, e.g., food supplements, water purification tablets, dietary and vitamin supplements, and the "School in a box".

​UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre:

The UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre in Florence, Italy, was established in 1988. The centre, formally known as the International Child Development Centres, has as its prime objectives to improve international understanding of issues relating to children's rights, to promote economic policies that advance the cause of children, and to help facilitate the full implementation of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child in industrialized and developing countries.

​The program for 2006–2008 was approved by UNICEF Executive Board in September 2005.

The  program reaffirms the centre's academic freedom and the focus of IRC's research on knowledge gaps, emerging questions and sensitive issues which are relevant to the realization of children's rights, in developing and industrialized countries.

It capitalizes on IRC's role as an interface between UNICEF field experience, international experts, research networks and policy makers and is designed to strengthen the centre's institutional collaboration with regional academic and policy institutions, pursuing the following goals:
  • Generation and communication of strategic and influential knowledge on issues affecting children and the realization of their rights;
  • Knowledge exchange and brokering;
  • Support to UNICEF's advocacy, policy's and program development in support of the Millennium Agenda
  • Securing and strengthening the centre's institutional and financial basis.

Three interrelated strategies guide the achievement of these goals:
  • Evidence-based analysis drawing on quantitative and qualitative information, the application of appropriate methodologies, and the development of recommendations to assess and inform advocacy and policy action.
  • Enhanced partnerships with research and policy institutions and development actors, globally and at regional level, in developing and industrialized countries.
  • Communication and leveraging of research findings and recommendations to support policy development and advocacy initiatives through strategic dissemination of studies and contribution to relevant events and fora.
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Controversies:

Adoption program:

UNICEF has a policy preferring orphanages only be used as temporary accommodation for children when there is no alternative.

UNICEF has historically opposed the creation of large-scale, permanent orphanages for children, preferring instead to find children places in their (extended) families and communities, wherever possible.

This has led UNICEF to be skeptical of international adoption efforts as a solution to child care problems in developing countries; UNICEF has preferred to see children cared for in their birth countries rather than be adopted by foreign parents.

A 2015 article in U.S. News & World Report magazine asserted UNICEF's intervention that on giving large cash payments to developing countries can lead to a cessation of international adoptions until all of its recommendations are in place, and have even labeled UNICEF a "villain" for the extent of its negative impact on orphans.

Elizabeth Bartholet and Paulo Barrozo have written in this context, encouraging adoption protocols to take on a more child-centric viewpoint.

Infant mortality:

One concern is that the child mortality rate has not decreased in some areas as rapidly as had been planned, especially in Sub-Saharan Africa, where in 2013 "the region still has the highest child mortality rate: 92 deaths per 1000 live births". and that "Globally, nearly half of under-five deaths are attributable to under-nutrition."

In 2005, Richard Horton editor-in-chief of The Lancet, editorialized that "over 60% of these deaths were and remain preventable" and that the coverage levels for these interventions are "appallingly low in the 42 countries that account for 90% of child deaths".

NSA surveillance:
Further information: Global surveillance disclosure

​Documents released by Edward Snowden in December 2013 showed that UNICEF was among the surveillance targets of British and American intelligence agencies.

See also:







Donors Choose OrganizationPictured below: Nearly 200 IPS Classroom Projects Funded Through DonorsChoose.org
DonorsChoose.org is a United States–based nonprofit organization that allows individuals to donate directly to public school classroom projects. Founded in 2000 by former public school teacher Charles Best, DonorsChoose.org was among the first civic crowdfunding platforms of its kind.

The organization has been given Charity Navigator’s highest rating every year since 2005.

In January 2018, they announced that 1 million projects had been funded. In 80% of public schools in the United States, at least one project has been requested on DonorsChoose.org.

Schools from wealthy areas are more likely to make technology requests, while schools from less affluent areas are more likely to request basic supplies.

It's been noted that repeat donors on DonorsChoose typically donate to projects they have no prior relationship with, and most often fund projects serving financially challenged students.

Click on any of the following blue  hyperlinks for more about DonorsChoose.org:





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Humanity along with Compassion towards others Pictured below: Quotation by the Dalai Lama
["Humanity" and "Compassion" are two separate topics, which when combined together, recognize the best in humanity!]

Humanity is a virtue associated with basic ethics of altruism derived from the human condition.

Humanity differs from mere justice in that there is a level of altruism towards individuals included in humanity more so than the fairness found in justice. That is, humanity, and the acts of love, altruism, and social intelligence are typically individual strengths while fairness is generally expanded to all.

Peterson & Seligman in Character Strengths and Virtues: A Handbook and Classification (2004) class humanity as one of six virtues that are consistent across all cultures.

The concept goes back to the development of "humane" or "humanist" philosophy during the Renaissance (with predecessors in 13th-century scholasticism stressing a concept of basic human dignity inspired by Aristotelianism) and the concept of humanitarianism in the early modern period, and resulted in modern notions such as "human rights"

Click on any of the following blue  hyperlinks for more about "Humanity": ___________________________________________________________________________

​Compassion motivates people to go out of their way to help the physical, mental, or emotional pains of another and themselves.

Compassion is often regarded as having sensitivity, an emotional aspect to suffering, though when based on cerebral notions such as fairness, justice, and interdependence, it may be considered rational in nature and its application understood as an activity also based on sound judgment.

There is also an aspect of equal dimension, such that an individual's compassion is often given a property of "depth", "vigor", or "passion".

The etymology of "compassion" is Latin, meaning "co-suffering." Compassion involves "feeling for another" and is a precursor to empathy, the "feeling as another" capacity for better person-centered acts of active compassion; in common parlance active compassion is the desire to alleviate another's suffering.

Compassion involves allowing ourselves to be moved by suffering and experiencing the motivation to help alleviate and prevent it. An act of compassion is defined by its helpfulness. Qualities of compassion are patience and wisdom; kindness and perseverance; warmth and resolve. It is often, though not inevitably, the key component in what manifests in the social context as altruism.

Expression of compassion is prone to be hierarchical, paternalistic and controlling in responses. Difference between sympathy and compassion is that the former responds to suffering from sorrow and concern while the latter responds with warmth and care.

The English noun compassion, meaning to love together with, comes from Latin. Its prefix com- comes directly from com, an archaic version of the Latin preposition and affix cum (= with); the -passion segment is derived from passus, past participle of the deponent verb patior, patī, passus sum.

​Compassion is thus related in origin, form and meaning to the English noun patient (= one who suffers), from patiens, present participle of the same patior, and is akin to the Greek verb πάσχειν (= paskhein, to suffer) and to its cognate noun πάθος (= pathos). Ranked a great virtue in numerous philosophies, compassion is considered in almost all the major religious traditions as among the greatest of virtues.

Click on any of the following blue hyperlinks for more about Compassion:






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Goodwill Industries (Non-Profit) Pictured below: ​Goodwill Industries of the Columbia Willamette operates retail stores, outlet locations, two online shopping sites, and dozens of attended donation centers. Your donations and purchases fund our free job services programs and we’re proud to be good environmental stewards with our award-winning recycling and salvage operations. For locations, click here.
Goodwill Industries International Inc., or shortened to Goodwill, (stylized as goodwill) is an American nonprofit 501(c)(3) organization that provides job training, employment placement services, and other community-based programs for people who have barriers preventing them from otherwise obtaining a job.

Additionally, Goodwill Industries may hire veterans and individuals who lack education or job experience or face employment challenges. Goodwill is funded by a massive network of retail thrift stores which operate as nonprofits as well.

Goodwill's answer to its profit status is "As a unique hybrid called a social enterprise, we defy traditional distinctions. Instead of a single bottom line of profit, we hold ourselves accountable to a triple bottom line of people, planet, and performance."

Goodwill operates as a network of independent, community-based organizations in South Korea, Venezuela, Brazil, Mexico, Panama, Uruguay, the United States, Canada, and 8 other countries, with 162 local Goodwills in the United States and Canada. It slowly expanded from its founding in 1902 and was first called Goodwill in 1915.

In 2014, Goodwill organizations generated a total of $5.59 billion in revenue, 83 percent of which was spent directly on programs. In 2015, the group served more than 37 million people, with more than 312,000 people placed into employment.
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Goodwill's logo is a stylized letter g, resembling a smiling face. It was designed by Joseph Selame in 1968.
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Currently, there are two public faces of Goodwill. Organization expert Lorie Marrero is the face of the Donate Movement, which began in 2010.

ABC correspondent Evette Rios partnered with Goodwill in 2012 to help appeal to the Latin American market. Form 990 filed by Goodwill Industries listed the 2017 salary of CEO James Gibbons as $598,300 with additional compensation of $118,927.

Click on any of the following blue hyperlinks for more about Goodwill Industries:







Food Banks including "Feeding America" Pictured below: What do Food Banks Need? by Feeding Missouri
A foodbank is a non-profit, charitable organization that distributes food to those who have difficulty purchasing enough to avoid hunger.

Some food banks operate on the "front line" model, giving out food directly to the hungry, such as many European ones. Others operate on the "warehouse" model, supplying food to intermediaries like food pantries, soup kitchens and other front-line organisations, such as in Nepal, North America and Australia.

St. Mary's Food Bank was the world's first food bank (see above Video), established in the US in 1967.

Since then, many thousands have been set up all over the world. In Europe, which until recently had little need for food banks due to extensive welfare systems, their numbers grew rapidly after the global increase in the price of food which began in late 2006, and especially after the financial crisis of 2007–08 began to worsen economic conditions for those on low incomes.

The growth of food banks has been welcomed by commentators who see them as examples of an active, caring citizenship. Other academics and commentators have expressed concern that the rise of foodbanks may erode political support for welfare provision. Researchers have reported that in some cases food banks can be inefficient compared with state-run services, and that some people feel ashamed at having to use them.

Operational Models:

With thousands of food banks operating around the world, there are many different models.
​
A major distinction between food banks is whether or not they operate on the "front line" model, giving out food directly to the hungry, or whether they operate with the "warehouse" model, supplying food to intermediaries like food pantries, soup kitchens and other front-line organisations. 

In the US, Australia and to an extent in Canada, the standard model is for food banks to act as warehouses rather than as suppliers to the end user, though there are exceptions. In other countries, food banks usually do hand out food parcels direct to hungry people, providing the service that in the US is offered by food pantries.

Another distinction is between the charity model and the labor union model. At least in Canada and the US, food banks run by charities often place relatively more weight on the salvaging of food that would otherwise go to waste, and on encouraging voluntarism, whereas those run by unions can place greater emphasis on feeding the hungry by any means available, on providing work for the unemployed, and on education, especially on explaining to users their civil rights.

In the US, cities will often have a single food bank which acts as a centralized warehouse and will serve several hundred front line agencies. Like a blood bank, that warehouse serves as a single collection and distribution point for food donations. A food bank operates a lot like a for-profit food distributor, but in this case it distributes food to charities, not to food retailers. There is often no charge to the charities, but some food banks do charge a small "shared maintenance" fee to help defray the cost of storage and distribution.

For many US food banks, most of their donated food comes from food left over from the normal processes of for-profit companies. It can come from any part of the food chain, e.g. from growers who have produced too much or whose food is not sufficiently visually appealing; from manufacturers who overproduced; or from retailers who over-ordered. Often the product is approaching or past its "sell by" date. In such cases, the food bank liaises with the food industry and with regulators to make sure the food is safe and legal to distribute and eat.

Other sources of food include the general public, sometimes in the form of "food drives", and government programs that buy and distribute excess farm products mostly to help support higher commodity prices.

Food banks can also buy food either at market prices or from wholesalers and retailers at discounted prices, often at cost. Sometimes farmers will allow food banks to send gleaners to salvage leftover crops for free once their primary harvest is complete.

A few food banks have even taken over their own farms, though such initiatives have not always been successful.

Many food banks don't accept fresh produce, preferring canned or packaged food due to health and safety concerns, though some have tried to change this as part of a growing worldwide awareness of the importance of nutrition. As an example, in 2012, London Food Bank (Canada) started accepting perishable food, reporting that as well as the obvious health benefits, there were noticeable emotional benefits to recipients when they were given fresh food.

Summer can be a challenging time for food banks, especially in regions where school children are usually given regular free meals during term time. Spikes in demand can coincide with periods where donations fall due to folk being on holiday.

Click on any of the following blue hyperlinks for more about Food Banks: ___________________________________________________________________________

​"Feeding America" Food Bank

Feeding America is a United States–based nonprofit organization that is a nationwide network of more than 200 food banks (see above) that feed more than 46 million people through food pantries, soup kitchens, shelters, and other community-based agencies.

Forbes ranks it as the second largest U.S. charity by revenue. Feeding America was known as America's Second Harvest until August 31, 2008.

Click on any of the following blue hyperlinks for more about "Feeding America":







World Central Kitchen and Chef José Andrés Pictured below: 'Without Empathy, Nothing Works.' Chef José Andrés Wants to Feed the World Through the Pandemic (Time Magazine)
World Central Kitchen (WCK) is a not-for-profit non-governmental organization devoted to providing meals in the wake of natural disasters.

​Founded in 2010 by celebrity chef José Andrés (see next topic), the organization prepared food in Haiti following its devastating earthquake. Its method of operations is to be a first responder and then to collaborate and galvanize solutions with local chefs to solve the problem of hunger, immediately following a disaster.

Disaster Relief:

​Since its founding, the NGO has organized meals in the Dominican Republic, Nicaragua, Zambia, Peru, Cuba, Uganda, The Bahamas and in Cambodia.

World Central Kitchen and Andrés emerged as a leader of the disaster relief efforts in Puerto Rico in the wake of Hurricane Maria in 2017. World Central Kitchen served more than 3,000,000 meals. Its founder wrote a 2018 book about the experience called We Fed an Island: The True Story of Rebuilding Puerto Rico, One Meal at a Time.

In August 2017, WCK was coordinating efforts with the American Red Cross and working in Houston, Texas following Hurricane Harvey.

WCK operated in Southern California in Ventura County during the December 2017 Thomas Fire to assist firefighters and first responders and provided food to families affected by the fires.

A kitchen to serve the Hawaiian communities affected by a volcanic eruption in June 2018 was set up.

In September 2018, WCK worked in South Carolina in the aftermath of Hurricane Florence.

In November 2018, WCK and Andrés teamed up with chefs Guy Fieri and Tyler Florence, and local Sierra Nevada Brewing Company to bring Thanksgiving dinner to 15,000 Camp Fire survivors in Butte County, California.

In January 2019 WCK and Andrés opened a restaurant on Pennsylvania Ave, Washington DC to feed federal workers that were furloughed during the government shutdown.

In September 2019, WCK and Andrés opened kitchens in The Bahamas to feed people in the wake of Hurricane Dorian. 

In October they helped in Sonoma County, working with local chefs such as Guy Fieri, during the Kincade Fire.

​Recognition:
See also: ___________________________________________________________________________

José Ramón Andrés Puerta (born 13 July 1969) is a Spanish-American chef often credited with bringing the small plates dining concept to America. He owns restaurants in Washington, D.C., Los Angeles, Las Vegas, South Beach, Florida, Orlando, New York City, and Frisco, Texas.

Andrés is the founder of World Central Kitchen (above), a non-profit devoted to providing meals in the wake of natural disasters. He was awarded a 2015 National Humanities Medal at a 2016 White House ceremony.

Click on any of the following blue hyperlinks for more about José Andrés:







American Red CrossPictured below: We Are the American Red Cross - Sleeves Up. Hearts Open. All In.
The American Red Cross (ARC), also known as The American National Red Cross, is a humanitarian organization that provides emergency assistance, disaster relief, and disaster preparedness education in the United States.

ARC is the designated US affiliate of the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies and the United States movement to the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement.

The organization offers services and development programs per the following.

Click on any of the following blue hyperlinks for more about the American Red Cross:









Caregivers (including "These public servants are finalists for the Oscars of government.; Yes, Fauci is one of them" OpEd by Washington Post May 3, 2020Pictured below: The Importance of Caregivers
These public servants are finalists for the Oscars of government. (Yes, Fauci is one of them.)

​"In any year, being a finalist for the Career Achievement Award is one of the highest possible honors for a federal public servant. The Service to America Medal — the “Sammies,” awarded by the nonpartisan Partnership for Public Service — are the Oscars of government.

This year, though, five of the nominees might be forgiven if their joy is a bit tempered. The sixth finalist is Anthony S. Fauci. How fair is that?

Still, all six are more than deserving. And the 19th annual Sammie nominations — 27 finalists in five categories — come at an opportune time. We are feeling keenly how essential the federal government is — and, simultaneously, how costly the decades of disrespect and disinvestment in its workforce.

Generally we don’t pay much attention to government until we need it, or it is letting us down. Right now both are true.

With 66,000 Americans dead of covid-19 already, the U.S. government is among the world’s worst responders to the pandemic. We have sent essential workers ill-equipped into danger.

We have no plan to remedy a crippling shortfall in tests. Businesses and people wait desperately for loans and checks.

But look more closely, and what you see is a failure of leaders, not civil servants. Of our current leader most of all, with his disdain for scientists who might have prepared us, his months of belittling the growing danger, his elevation even now of wishful thinking over strategy.

President Trump’s contempt for the “swamp” of government is uniquely odious, but it caps a long tradition: from Jimmy Carter’s campaigning against Washington to Ronald Reagan’s “nine most terrifying words” (“I’m from the government, and I’m here to help”) to Bill Clinton’s celebrating the end of big government to the tea party.

The result is a dwindling government workforce, measured against the size of our population, trying to make do with 19th century telework options and 20th century computer systems.

Now look again, and see the thousands of government workers performing courageously, with little recognition, in the face of pandemic danger. TSA agents, animal keepers at the Washington zoo, intelligence analysts who can only work from their secure spaces, janitors, computer engineers, officials at the IRS and SBA and Fed — all of them reporting for duty, at personal risk.

And see the Sammie award nominees, representing a vast array of talents, but sharing a modest insistence that anything they’ve accomplished is thanks to their team — and a touching gratitude for the chance to serve.

People like State Department lawyer Monica Jacobsen, 34, an Emerging Leader finalist, who has helped strengthen the government’s ability to sanction human rights abusers around the world. She is part of a group, she told me, who “are not doing it for the recognition, they’re certainly not doing it for the money. They’re doing it for the impact that can be made when good, smart people try to make sure the government is trying to do the right thing.”

Or like Neil Evans, Kathleen Frisbee and Kevin Galpin, finalists in Management Excellence. Their years of work in improving digital and telehealth options at Veterans Affairs have let the agency scale up in this pandemic from treating 2,000 to 20,000 patients a day remotely, protecting patients and providers alike. “I’m not even clear that we’ve hit our peak, but I do believe that we’ve hit a new normal,” Galpin told me.

Or like Claire Parkinson, a NASA scientist for 41 years, competing against Fauci for Career Achievement. As Fauci’s nomination notes and the nation has learned, the director of the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases has been “the government’s premier expert and spokesperson on infectious diseases during six presidencies.”

But Parkinson is no slouch, either. One of the world’s leading experts on polar ice caps since long before most people recognized their importance as an indicator of climate change, she also is project scientist for the Aqua satellite, which collects data about the atmosphere, oceans, sea ice, land ice and vegetation — data that is relied upon by other scientists, the Coast Guard, the U.S. Forest Service and countless others.

“Even though the job is sometimes tough, sometimes frustrating, every day I feel privileged to have this job,” Parkinson told me. “It’s just awesome some of the things NASA does.”
Parkinson told me with a laugh that as soon as she saw the list of finalists last week, she thought, “Okay, this contest is over.”

“That’s okay,” she said. “Clearly Fauci is a dedicated civil servant. He deserves every award he gets.”

But, she added, “It’s nice that there are quite a few other dedicated civil servants, too.”

Yes, that is nice. It will be even nicer when we voters give those dedicated civil servants the kind of leaders they deserve.

Read more from Fred Hiatt’s archive, follow him on Twitter or subscribe to his updates on Facebook.

[End of OpEd]
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A caregiver or informal caregiver is a paid or unpaid and without formal training (in the related treatment) member of a person's social network who helps them with activities of daily living. Caregiving is most commonly used to address impairments related to old age, disability, a disease, or a mental disorder.

Typical duties of a caregiver might include taking care of someone who has a chronic illness or disease; managing medications or talking to doctors and nurses on someone's behalf; helping to bathe or dress someone who is frail or disabled; or taking care of household chores, meals, or processes both formal and informal documentation related to health for someone who cannot do these things alone.

With an increasingly aging population in all developed societies, the role of caregiver has been increasingly recognized as an important one, both functionally and economically. Many organizations which provide support for persons with disabilities have developed various forms of support for carers as well.

​Uses:

A primary caregiver is the person who takes primary responsibility for someone who cannot care fully for himself or herself. The primary caregiver may be a family member, a trained professional or another individual. Depending on culture there may be various members of the family engaged in care. The concept can be important in attachment theory as well as in family law, for example in guardianship and child custody.

A person may need care due to loss of health, loss of memory, the onset of illness, an incident (or risk) of falling, anxiety or depression, grief, or a disabling condition.

Technique:

Basic principles:

A fundamental part of giving care is being a good communicator with the person getting care. Care is given with respect for the dignity of the person receiving care. The carer remains in contact with the primary health care provider, often a doctor or nurse, and helps the person receiving care make decisions about their health and matters affecting their daily life.

In the course of giving care, the caregiver is responsible for managing hygiene of themselves, the person receiving care, and the living environment. Hand washing for both caregivers and persons receiving care happen often. If the person receiving care is producing sharps waste from regular injections, then the caregiver should manage that. Surfaces of the living area should be regularly cleaned and wiped and laundry managed.

The caregiver manages organization of the person's agenda. Of special importance is helping the person meet medical appointments. Also routine daily living functions are scheduled, like managing hygiene tasks and keeping health care products available.

Monitoring:
Main article: Monitoring (medicine)

The caregiver is in close contact with the person receiving care and should monitor their health in a reasonable way.

Some people receiving care require that someone take notice of their breathing. It is expected that a caregiver would notice changes in breathing, and that if a doctor advised a caregiver to watch for something, then the caregiver should be able to follow the doctor's instructions in monitoring the person.

Some people receiving care require that the caregiver monitor their body temperature. If this needs to be done, a doctor will advise the caregiver on how to use a thermometer. For people who need blood pressure monitoring, blood glucose monitoring, or other specific health monitoring, then a doctor will advise the care giver on how to do this.

The caregiver should watch for changes in a person's mental condition, including becoming unhappy, withdrawn, less interested, confused, or otherwise not as healthy as they have been. In all monitoring, the caregiver's duty is to take notes of anything unusual and share it with the doctor.

Keeping the person mentally alert:

There is a link between mental health and physical health and mind–body interventions may increase physical health by improving mental health. These practices seek to improve a person's quality of life by helping them socialize with others, keep friendships, do hobbies, and enjoy whatever physical exercise is appropriate.

Caregivers encourage people to leave their homes for the health benefits of the resulting physical and mental activity. Depending on a person's situation, a walk through their own neighborhood or a visit to a park may require planning or have risks, but it is good to do when possible.

Depending on a person's situation, it may be useful for them to meet others also getting similar care services. Many places offer exercise groups to join. Social clubs may host hobby groups for art classes, social outings, or to play games. For elderly people there may be senior clubs which organize day trips.

Eating assistance:

Caregivers help people have a healthy diet. This help might include giving nutrition suggestions based on the recommendations of dietitians, monitoring body weight, addressing difficulty swallowing or eating, complying with dietary restrictions, assisting with the use of any dietary supplements, and arranging for pleasant mealtimes.

A healthy diet includes everything to meet a person's food energy and nutritional needs. People become at risk for not having a healthy diet when they are inactive or bedbound; living alone; sick; having difficulty eating; affected by medication; depressed; having difficulty hearing, seeing, or tasting; unable to get food they enjoy; or are having communication problems.

A poor diet contributes to many health problems, including increased risk of infection, poor recovery time from surgery or wound healing, skin problems, difficulty in activities of daily living, fatigue, and irritability. Older people are less likely to recognize thirst and may benefit from being offered water.

Difficulty eating is most often caused by difficulty swallowing. This symptom is common in people after a stroke, people with Parkinson's disease or who have multiple sclerosis, and people with dementia. The most common way to help people with trouble swallowing is to change the texture of their food to be softer. Another way is to use special eating equipment to make it easier for the person to eat. 

In some situations, caregivers can be supportive by providing assisted feeding in which the person's independence is respected while the caregiver helps them take food in their mouth by placing it there and being patient with them.

Support with managing medications:

Caregivers have a vital role in supporting people with managing their medications at home. A person living with chronic illness may have a complex medication regimen with multiple medications and doses at different times of the day.

Caregivers may assist in managing medications in many ways. This may range from going to the pharmacy to collect medications, helping with devices such as webster or dosette medication boxes, or actually administering the medications at home. These medications might include tablets, but also cremes, injections or liquid medications. It is important that the healthcare providers in the clinic help educate caregivers since those caregivers will often be the ones that manage medications over the long term for an individual living with a chronic condition at home.

​Changes to the home:

Living arrangements:

To have a caregiver, a person may have to decide on changes on where they live and with whom they live. When someone needs a caregiver, the two must meet, and this typically happens either in the person's own home or the caregiver's home. Consequently, this could mean that a person moves to live with the caregiver, or the caregiver moves to live with the person. It is also possible that the caregiver only visits occasionally or is able to provide support remotely, or that the person who needs care is able to travel to the caregiver to get it.

A common example of this is when a parent gets older and has previously lived alone. If the parent's children are to be caregivers, then they may move in with the parent or have the parent move in with them.

Safety in the home:

Persons who need care are also frequently people who need homes that are accessible in a way that matches their needs. If the caregiving plan calls for a check on the home, then typically this includes checking that the floor is free from hazards which could cause a falling, has temperature control which suits the person getting care, and has faucets and knobs which suit the users.

To reduce risk of any major problem, smoke detectors should be put in place and appropriate physical security measures taken for home safety.

Complications:

Discontinuing unnecessary treatment:

For some diseases, such as advanced cancer, there may be no treatment of the disease which can prolong the life of the patient or improve the patient's quality of life. In such cases, standard medical advice would be for the caregiver and patient to have conversations with the doctor about the risks and benefits of treatment and to seek options for palliative care or hospice.

During end-of-life care the caregiver can assist in discussions about screening which is no longer necessary.

Screenings which would be indicated at other times of life, like colonoscopy, breast cancer screening, prostate cancer screening, bone density screening, and other tests may not be reasonable to have for a person at the end of life who would not take treatment for these conditions and who would only be disturbed to learn they had them. It can be the caregivers place to have conversations about the potential benefits for screenings and to participate in discussions about their usefulness.

An example of a need for caregiver intervention is to talk with people on dialysis who cannot have cancer treatment and can have no benefit from cancer screening, but who consider getting the screening.

People with diabetes who use caregiving services, like those in a nursing home, frequently have problems using sliding-scale insulin therapy, which is the use of varying amounts of insulin depending on the person's blood sugar. For people receiving caregiving services, long-acting insulin doses are indicated with varying doses of insulin being less preferable treatment. 

If exceptions must be made, then use the long-acting insulin and correct with small doses of sliding scale insulin before the biggest meal of the day.

Advance care planning should note if a patient is using a implantable cardioverter-defibrillator (ICD) and give instructions about the circumstances in which leaving it activated would be contrary to the patient's goals. An ICD is a device designed to prevent cardiac arrhythmia in heart patients. This is a life saving device for people who have a goal to live for a long time, but at the end of life it is recommended that the caregiver discuss deactivating this device with the patient and health care provider.

For patients at the end of life, the device rarely prevents death as intended. Using the device at the end of life can cause pain to the patient and distress to anyone who sees the patient experience this. Likewise, ICDs should not be implanted in anyone who is unlikely to live for more than a year.

Responding to dementia:

People with dementia need support from their caregivers.

People with dementia can become restless or aggressive but treating these behavior changes with antipsychotic drugs is not a preferable option unless the person seems likely to harm themselves or others.

Antipsychotic drugs have undesirable side effects, including increasing risk of diabetes, pneumonia, stroke, disruption of cognitive skill, and confusion, and consequently are better avoided when possible. Alternatives to using these drugs is trying to identify and treat underlying causing of irritability and anger, perhaps by arranging for the person to spend more time socializing or exercising. Antidepressants may also help. A caregiver who can try other options can improve the patient's quality of life.

People with dementia are likely to lose memories and cognitive skill. Drugs such as donepezil and memantine can slow the loss of function but the benefits to the patient's quality of life are few and in some cases there may not be any. Such drugs also have many undesirable side effects. Before using these drugs, the caregiver should discuss and consider treatment goals for the patient. If the drugs are used, then after twelve weeks, if the caregiver finds that goals are not being met, then use of the drugs should be discontinued.

People with dementia are likely to have difficulty eating and swallowing. Sometimes feeding tubes are used to give food to people with dementia, especially when they are in the hospital or a nursing home. While feeding tubes can help people gain weight, they carry risks including bleeding, infection, pressure ulcers, and nausea. Whenever possible, use assisted feeding in preference.

Besides being a safer alternative to the feeding tube, it creates an opportunity for social interaction which can also be comforting to the person being fed.

Behavior changes:

Caregivers can help people understand and respond to changes in their behavior.

Caregivers are recommended to help people find alternatives to using sleep medication when possible. Sleeping medications do not provide a lot of benefit to most people and have side effects including causing memory problems and confusion, increasing risk of blood clots, and bringing weight gain. Caregivers can help people improve their sleep hygiene in other ways, such as getting regular exercise, keeping to a sleep schedule, and arranging for a quiet place to sleep.

Caregivers are recommended to help people find alternatives to using appetite stimulants or food supplements high in food energy. These treatments are not proven to provide benefit over alternatives but they do increase the risk of various health problems.

One alternative to using appetite stimulants is to provide social support, as many people are more comfortable eating when sharing a meal with others. People who have trouble eating may appreciate assisted feeding from their caregiver.

Depending on the situation, a caregiver, patient, and physician may decide to forgo any dietary restrictions such as a low sodium diet and feed the person what they enjoy eating despite the health consequences if that seems preferable to avoiding appetite stimulants.

Promoting self-care:

Self-care has been defined as “a process of maintaining health through health promoting practices and managing illness”. Self-care may be performed for several reasons, whether in response to disease or injury, to manage chronic conditions, to maintain health, or for the preservation of self. 

There are many different factors that may influence self-care, including knowledge and educational background, physical limitations, economic status, culture, and social support, to name a few. Additionally, the process of self-care can be performed individually or with the assistance of a caregiver.

Caregiver-patient interactions form dynamic relationships that vary based on multiple factors, including disease, comorbid conditions, dependence level, and personal relationship, among others.

The term “caregiver” can refer to people who take care of someone with a chronic illness or a supporter who influences the self-care behaviors of another person. Couples often form an interdependent relationship that is linked to their health.

The close dynamics of these relationships can influence self-care behavior and transform it from a self-centered behavior to a relationship-centered behavior. Adopting a relationship-centered mindset can lead to enhanced motivation for both partners to carry out self-care behaviors and support one another in the process.

Multiple studies have demonstrated the significant role that caregivers play in promoting self-care in persons with an illness. A study observing the effects of a supportive intervention for caregivers of patients with heart failure found higher and statistically significant self-care behavior scores in the intervention group. 

Another research study conducted by Chen et al. identified higher social support as one of the main factors associated with improved functioning and a higher quality of life in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). The presence of higher social support also had positive effects on the physical and mental health of these persons.

COPD patients with a caregiver were found to have lower rates of depression and increased participation in pulmonary rehabilitation, indicating the critical role a caregiver plays in influencing patient success.

As mentioned, caregivers can promote self-care in a variety of ways. A research study performed in Lebanon found that family-centered self-care has the potential to reduce the risk of hospital readmission in patients diagnosed with heart failure. Additionally, having the support of a family member can motivate patients to perform adequate self-care and increase adherence to their treatment plan.

The environment surrounding a patient and disease has proved to be an important factor in improving clinical outcomes. Specifically, family-focused caregivers providing supportive interventions can help to improve the self-care behaviors of patients with various different diseases. When patients were asked to describe the influence of family or caregiver support, they stressed the critical role these supporters played in remaining on track with their medications, dietary choices, and exercise behaviors.

Clinical decision-making:

Despite the evidence of self-care promotion, caregivers are consistently underused during clinical encounters. Caregivers can contribute significantly to promoting patient wellness, including promoting patient independence and self-care.

However, despite studies demonstrating caregivers’ daily and positive contributions to patients’ self-care, and their ability to offer perceptions, insights, and concerns, providers are not meaningfully engaging caregivers during the decision-making process for chronic care management. 

Ignoring the caregiver not only leaves the burden of illness on patients’ shoulders but may also prevent caregivers from obtaining the knowledge they need to provide clinically effective care and promote self-care.

The perceptions and needs of caregivers are inconsistently and seldom incorporated in designing and implementing interventions. Supporting research concludes that when caregivers are engaged in provider-patient encounters, patients report higher satisfaction with the clinical experience. 

The benefits of engaging caregivers during the clinical decision-making process include—and are not limited to—better patient understanding of provider advice, enhancement of patient-provider communication, better prioritization of patient concerns, and emotional support for the patient. These benefits are essential to the performance of self-care.

Caregiver stress:
Main article: Caregiver stress

The stress associated with caring for chronically ill family members may result in stress for the caregiver. Home care providers i.e. spouses, children of elderly parents and parents themselves contribute a huge sum in the national economy.

In most parts, the economic contribution or quantification of home care providers is not accounted for. However, along with the unseen/unaccounted for economic contribution, the work toll and the loss of opportunity and the physical and mental drainout is also substantial.

Sometimes to provide for the sickly and the ailing proves to be both a huge physical and mental strain. In the case of professional caregivers, it has been well researched and documented in last few decades that this mental strain is much higher than those providing care for family members.

Care provided for family members- especially partners who are mentally challenged/with non-physical disorders, the degree of mental strain are high to the point of the caregivers themselves at risk of being psychologically broken due to the high demanding situations both of physical toll complicated with non-professional work environment (lack of institutional caregiving equipment – both in terms of work-safety equipment and care providing equipment), safety concerns and behavioral issue .

The physical, emotional and financial consequences for the family caregiver can be overwhelming. Caregivers responsible for an individual with a psychiatric disorder can be subject to violence. Elderly caregivers appear to be at particular risk. Respite can provide a much needed temporary break from the often exhausting challenges faced by the family caregiver.

Respite is the service most often requested by family caregivers, yet it is in critically short supply, inaccessible, or unaffordable regardless of the age or disability of the individual needing assistance. While the focus has been on making sure families have the option of providing care at home, little attention has been paid to the needs of the family caregivers who make this possible.

Without respite, not only can families suffer economically and emotionally, caregivers themselves may face serious health and social risks as a result of stress associated with continuous caregiving.

Three fifths of family caregivers age 19-64 surveyed recently by the Commonwealth Fund reported fair or poor health, one or more chronic conditions, or a disability, compared with only one-third of non-caregivers.

In the United States today there are approximately 61.6 million people (referenced above) who are caring at home for family members including elderly parents, and spouses and children with disabilities and/or chronic illnesses. Without this home-care, most of these cared for loved ones would require permanent placement in institutions or health care facilities at great cost to society.

Society and culture:

Caregiving by country:
Main article: Caregiving by country

Caregiving is the regional variation of caregiving practices as distinguished among countries.

Caregiving certification:

Some agencies, such as nursing homes and assisted living communities, require caregiver certification as a condition for employment. Most US states have caregiver resource centers that can assist in locating a reputable training class.

In many cases, training is available at local colleges, vocational schools, organizations such as the American Red Cross, and at local and national caregiver organizations. National organizations include the National Association for Home Care and Hospice, the Family Caregiver Alliance and the National Family Caregivers Association.

To become a certified home care aide in the state of Washington, the candidate will need to: Complete a home care aide application, including the Employment Verification form.

Undergo a Washington State Department of Social and Health Services (DSHS) criminal background check. Complete a 75-hour basic training course approved by DSHS. Pass the home care aide knowledge and skills certification examinations.

The Social Psychology of Caregiving:

Informal caregiving for someone with an acquired disability entails role changes that can be difficult. The person with the disability becomes a care-receiver, often struggling for independence and at risk of stigmatization. Simultaneously, family and friends become informal caregivers, a demanding and usually unfamiliar role. 

Adaptation to these role changes is complex. Caregivers and care-receivers often work together to avoid stigma and compensate for the disability. However, each side experiences divergent practical, social and emotional demands which can also fracture the relationship, creating disagreements and misunderstandings.

Caregivers and care-receivers have been found to disagree about many things, including, care needs, risks and stress, and level of knowledge. it has also been found that caregivers rate care-receivers as more disabled than care-receivers rated themselves. Noble and Douglas found that family members wanted intensive interventions which were support focused, whereas care-receivers placed emphasis on interventions that fostered independence.

Many disagreements center on caregivers’ identity, particularly their over-protectiveness, embarrassment, independence, and confidence. These disagreements and misunderstandings, it has been argued, stem in part from caregivers concealing the demands of care. 

Caregivers often conceal the demands of care in order to make the person receiving care feel more independent. But, this can result in the person receiving care feeling more independent than they are, and subsequently a range of misunderstandings.

​It has also been argued that caregivers concealing the burden of care may end up undermining their own identity, because they do not get the social recognition necessary to create a positive identity – their toil becomes invisible. 

This has been termed ‘the caregiving bind,’ namely, that caregivers concealing the demands of care to protect and support the identity of the care-receiver, may end up undermining their own caregiving identity.

Economics:

The amount of caregiving which is done as unpaid work exceeds the amount done as work for hire. In the United States, for example, a 1997 study estimated the labor value of unpaid caregiving at US$196 billion, while the formal home health care work sector generated US$32 billion and nursing home care generated US$83 billion. 

The implication is that since so much personal investment is made in this sector, social programs to increase the efficiency and efficacy of caregivers would bring great benefit to society if they were easy to access and use.

Terminology:

The term "caregiver" is used more in the United States, Canada, and China, while "carer" is more commonly used in the United Kingdom, New Zealand, and Australia.

The term "caregiver" may be prefixed with "live-in", "family", "spousal", "child", "parent", "young" or "adult" to distinguish between different care situations, and also to distinguish them definitively from the paid version of a caregiver, a Personal Care Assistant or Personal Care Attendant (PCA).

Around half of all carers are effectively excluded from other paid employment through the heavy demands and responsibilities of caring for a vulnerable relative or friend. The term "carer" may also be used to refer to a paid, employed, contracted PCA.

The general term dependent care (i.e., care of a dependent) is also used for the provided help.

Terms such as "voluntary caregiver" and "informal carer" are also used occasionally, but these terms have been criticized by carers as misnomers because they are perceived as belittling the huge impact that caring may have on an individual's life, the lack of realistic alternatives, and the degree of perceived duty of care felt by many relatives.

More recently, Carers UK has defined carers as people who "provide unpaid care by looking after an ill, frail or disabled family member, friend or partner". Adults who act as carers for both their children and their parents are frequently called the Sandwich Generation.The sandwich generation is the generation of people who care for their aging parents while supporting their own children.

See also:







United Way of AmericaPictured below: United Way is the Leading Charity in the United States
United Way of America (now United Way Worldwide), based in Alexandria, Virginia, is a nonprofit organization that works with almost 1,200 offices throughout the country in a coalition of charitable organizations to pool efforts in fundraising and support.

United Way's focus is to identify and resolve pressing community issues and to make measurable changes in communities through partnerships with schools, government agencies, businesses, organized labor, financial institutions, community development corporations, voluntary and neighborhood associations, the faith community, and others. The main areas include education, income, and health.

United Way of America has been the largest non-profit organization by donations from the public, prior to 2016.

History:

The organization has roots in Denver, Colorado, where in 1887 Frances Wisebart Jacobs, along with other religious leaders, began the Charity Organization Society, which coordinated services between Jewish and Christian charities and fundraising for 22 agencies.

Many Community Chest organizations, which were founded in the first half of the twentieth century to jointly collect and allocate money, joined the American Association for Community Organizations in 1918. The first Community Chest was founded in 1913 in Cleveland, Ohio, after the example of the Jewish Federation in Cleveland—which served as an exemplary model for "federated giving".

The number of Community Chest organizations increased from 39 to 353 between 1919 and 1929 and surpassed 1,000 by 1948. In 1948, Walter C. Laidlaw merged the Community Chest and other Detroit charities to form the United Foundation Walter Laidlaw's work with the United Foundation became the model for united funds nationally and eventually the United Way organization.

In 1928, a Community Chest organization was established in Cape Town, South Africa. (In 2015, continued neglect by United Way Worldwide, including legal and financial scandals, has led to no active United Way presence in the country and completely severed ties with Community Chest).

By 1974, there were enough United Way organizations internationally to demand the kind of support provided by the national organization, United Way of America and United Way International was born (later these organizations were joined together and renamed to United Way Worldwide).

Its staff spoke eight languages, with a Board of Directors from more than seven countries, working with member organizations. Amundsen, Chief Administrative Officer, served as interim president during a yearlong search.

By 1963, and after several name changes, the term United Way was adopted, but not everyone chose to use it. After Walter C. Laidlaw fell ill, William Aramony became CEO of the national governing body known as the United Community Funds and Council of America (UCFCA) and in 1970 the organization was renamed United Way of America (UWA).

UWA moved from New York City to Alexandria, Virginia in 1971.

After Aramony's departure in 1992, Kenneth W. Dam was named interim CEO until Elaine Chao was selected as UWA's second president. Betty Stanley Beene took over in 1997 and stayed until 2002.

Chris Brian Gallagher, former head of United Way in Columbus, Ohio, accepted the job in 2002 and as president and CEO, Brian Gallagher was compensated over $1.5 million in 2012 with eight executives receiving over $300,000 in compensation in 2013. In 2014, Brian Gallagher received $1.54 million in compensation while the organization experienced its largest worldwide loss in revenue, volunteers, and donors in many years.

In the 2007 Philanthropy 400, United Way Worldwide was again the largest charity in the United States, with 1,285 local United Ways reporting over $4.2 billion in contributions, a 2.2% increase over 2006.

In May 2009, United Way of America and United Way International were integrated as one global entity, United Way Worldwide.

National partnerships:

  • The ongoing partnership with the National Football League began in 1973 when the NFL and United Way of America came together to discuss the possibility of using the NFL's network contract airtime to promote United Way during game telecasts. NFL commissioner Pete Rozelle recognized the partnership as a viable means of communicating the good works of United Ways while putting faces on a league of players hidden by helmets.
  • National partnerships with over 100 corporations are formalized through the National Corporate Leadership Program.
  • Since 1946, the American Federation of Labor and the Congress of Industrial Organizations (AFL-CIO) and United Way Worldwide have enjoyed a cooperative relationship
  • Leadership 18 is a coalition of long-established charities, faith-based organizations, and social and health groups that support and promote people's safety, health, well-being and social and economic development across America.

Scandals and criticism:

  • In 1986, The United Way of Cleveland, Ohio, held an event called Balloonfest '86, setting a world record by releasing 1.5 million balloons. Unfortunately, the event had disastrous consequences, wreaking havoc at Burke Lakefront Airport and Lake Erie, causing injury to animals and contributing to two fishermen's deaths.
  • William Aramony, CEO of the national organization for over 20 years, retired in 1992 amid allegations of fraud and financial mismanagement, of which he was subsequently convicted. He was sentenced to 7 years in prison and fined $300,000.
  • Ralph Dickerson Jr., a former CEO of United Way of New York City, was found to have used $227,000 in United Way funds for personal expenses during 2002 and 2003. He later agreed to reimburse the organization.
  • Oral Suer, CEO of the Washington, D.C. chapter, was convicted of misuse of donations in 2004. He pleaded guilty to theft of almost $500,000 and was sentenced to 27 months in prison. Norman O. Taylor, Suer's replacement, was never charged with misconduct but was forced to resign.

After the 2012 Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting, the United Way of Western Connecticut was criticized by some victims' family members for a lack of transparency in fundraising. According to those critical of the agency, the money was raised in a way that implied it would be used for the families, but then much of it re-purposed for broader community needs.

As the organization focuses on community long term work, the United Way stated that majority was intended to go to non-exclusive, community support programs like counseling, after school or job-support programs; however, this angered those who felt the money should go directly to the families of those affected.

See also:






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The Salvation Army
YouTube Video: History of the Salvation Army
YouTube Video; What is The  Salvation Army?
Pictured below: Salvation Army opens new Family Store in Ada
The Salvation Army (TSA) is a Christian church and an international charitable organisation.

The organisation reports a worldwide membership of over 1.7 million, consisting of soldiers, officers and adherents collectively known as Salvationists.

Its founders sought to bring salvation to the poor, destitute, and hungry by meeting both their "physical and spiritual needs". It is present in 131 countries, running charity shops, operating shelters for the homeless and disaster relief, and humanitarian aid to developing countries.

The theology of the Salvation Army is derived from that of Methodism, although it is distinctive in institution and practice. A peculiarity of the Army is that it gives its clergy titles of military ranks, such as "lieutenant" or "major". It does not celebrate the rites of Baptism and Holy Communion.

However, the Army's doctrine is otherwise typical of holiness churches in the Wesleyan–Arminian tradition. The Army's purposes are "the advancement of the Christian religion ... of education, the relief of poverty, and other charitable objects beneficial to society or the community of mankind as a whole".

The Army was founded in 1865 in London by one-time Methodist circuit-preacher William Booth and his wife Catherine as the East London Christian Mission, and can trace its origins to the Blind Beggar tavern. In 1878 Booth reorganised the mission, becoming its first General and introducing the military structure which has been retained as a matter of tradition. Its highest priority is its Christian principles.

The current international leader of The Salvation Army and chief executive officer (CEO) is General Brian Peddle, who was elected by the High Council of The Salvation Army on 3 August 2018.

Click on any of  the following blue hyperlinks for more about the  Salvation Army:







Doctors Without BordersPictured below: Doctors from MSF and the American CDC put on protective gear before entering an Ebola treatment ward in Liberia, August 2014
Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF; pronounced [medsɛ̃ sɑ̃ fʁɔ̃tjɛʁ] (listen)), sometimes rendered in English as Doctors Without Borders, is an international humanitarian medical non-governmental organisation (NGO) of French origin best known for its projects in conflict zones and in countries affected by endemic diseases.

In 2019, the group was active in 70 countries with over 35,000 personnel mostly local doctors, nurses and other medical professionals, logistical experts, water and sanitation engineers and administrators. Private donors provide about 90% of the organisation's funding, while corporate donations provide the rest, giving MSF an annual budget of approximately US$1.63 billion.

Médecins Sans Frontières was founded in 1971, in the aftermath of the Biafra secession, by a small group of French doctors and journalists who sought to expand accessibility to medical care across national boundaries and irrespective of race, religion, creed or political affiliation.

To that end, the organisation emphasises "independence and impartiality", and explicitly precludes political, economic, or religious factors in its decision making. For these reasons, it limits the amount of funding received from governments or intergovernmental organisations.

These principles have allowed MSF to speak freely with respect to acts of war, corruption, or other hindrances to medical care or human well-being. Only once in its history, during the 1994 genocide in Rwanda, has the organisation called for military intervention.

MSF's principles and operational guidelines are highlighted in its Charter, the Chantilly Principles, and the later La Mancha Agreement. Governance is addressed in Section 2 of the Rules portion of this final document. MSF has an associative structure, where operational decisions are made, largely independently, by the five operational centres (Amsterdam, Barcelona-Athens, Brussels, Geneva and Paris).

Common policies on core issues are coordinated by the International Council, in which each of the 24 sections (national offices) is represented. The International Council meets in Geneva, Switzerland, where the International Office, which coordinates international activities common to the operational centres, is also based.

MSF has general consultative status with the United Nations Economic and Social Council. It received the 1999 Nobel Peace Prize in recognition of its members' continued efforts to provide medical care in acute crises, as well as raising international awareness of potential humanitarian disasters. James Orbinski, who was the president of the organization at the time, accepted the prize on behalf of MSF. Prior to this, MSF also received the 1996 Seoul Peace Prize. Christos Christou succeeded Joanne Liu as international president in June 2019.

Click on any of the following blue hyperlinks for more about Doctors without Borders:
​







CORE (Community Organized Relief Effort) Pictured below: ​Mayor Lori Lightfoot, Sean Penn Tour New COVID-19 Testing Site In Belmont Cragin
CORE (Community Organized Relief Effort) (formerly J/P Haitian Relief Organization) is a non-profit organization founded by Sean Penn in response to the January 12, 2010 earthquake in Haiti. The organization later changed its name to receive contracts and donations to work globally and added longtime humanitarian Ann Lee as a co-founder. 

In March 2020, CORE began administering free COVID-19 tests in the U.S. amid the COVID-19 pandemic. Sites include: 
​Origins:

The organization changed its name to CORE (Community Organized Relief Effort) in 2019 as it expanded its relief efforts beyond Haiti.

J/P stood for Jenkins-Penn, a reference to Sanela Diana Jenkins, whose foundation supported initial relief efforts, with Sean Penn.

Staffing:

As of June 2020, CORE employs nearly 1,000 people working on COVID-19 response at 45 testing sites, including 10 mobile sites, across the United States.

In the aftermath of the 2010 earthquake in Haiti, J/P HRO employed nearly 350 people, 95 percent of whom were Haitian, to provide health, education and community development, and housing and economic opportunities.

As of 2020, CORE employs a team of over 100 people in Haiti working to rebuild communities.

Operations:

The organization works with the support of and in collaboration with local and national government leaders, community-based organizations, other international NGOs, UN agencies, donors, and community members themselves.

It implements sustainable and prosperous programs within underserved communities and vulnerable areas through a holistic approach to relief and preparation efforts that aims to empower communities from within by identifying and solving deep-rooted issues.

Haiti:

In the aftermath of the devastating 2010 earthquake in Haiti, J/P HRO managed the Pétion-Ville and Cité Maxo displaced persons camps, supporting nearly 60,000 internally displaced persons. By the end of 2013, J/P HRO achieved the successful relocation of all remaining camp families.

In total, the organization has cleared more than 600,000 cubic meters (m3)—approximately 38,000 dump truck loads—of earthquake debris and rubble from the city to date, and has been recognized as a leader in the overall rubble removal effort for safety and efficiency. It also has rebuilt and retrofitted badly damaged structures, including educational and medical facilities, and built new homes, in accordance with a "build back better" approach.

J/P HRO treated 500,000 patients at two community clinics following the earthquake, providing free emergency and primary medical care for a nominal sum. The clinics also led broad public education campaigns on good health and hygiene practice.

In an effort geared towards sustainability, the organization has also created educational and enrichment opportunities for the community members, while forging partnerships with small businesses in Port-au-Prince. Over 6,000 students have been enrolled in school programs and 2,500 students have been given business training.

In response to the cholera outbreak in late 2010, J/P HRO teamed up with the Pan American Health Organization and the World Health Organization to help stop the spread of the disease.

A decade after the earthquake, CORE continues to operate successful year-round programs in Haiti, and has expanded its efforts to include programs centered on reforestation (Haiti Takes Root), education, health, and community development, including the Women’s Economic Participation Consortium program supporting women’s entrepreneurship.

During the COVID-19 health crisis, the organization is currently operating a test site at its School of Hope and working with the Ministry of Health to provide wrap-around services to the community focused on education and preventing the spread of the disease.

COVID-19:

In response to the testing shortage in the United States during the COVID-19 pandemic, CORE is setting up and operating testing sites across the country, working in collaboration with local and state governments to open new sites as well as take over existing sites.

Since beginning COVID-19 testing, CORE has helped administer over 1.3 million free tests (as of August 2020).

As of June 2020, CORE operates 35 stationed sites and 10 mobile sites and plans to continue opening more sites, specifically in underserved, vulnerable communities.

Current site locations include Los Angeles, Oakland, Detroit, Chicago, Atlanta, New Orleans, New York, North Carolina, Navajo Nation, Napa, Bakersfield, and a “super-site” at Dodger Stadium, where up to 6,000 people are tested daily.

Tests are administered using a nasopharyngeal or oral swab via drive-through or walk-up testing. The organization is currently developing a contact tracing program as well.

Hurricane relief:

CORE played a pivotal role in relief efforts following Hurricane Matthew in 2016, which wreaked havoc on Haiti as it was still recovering from damage caused by the 2010 earthquake.

The organization led the post-disaster response to Hurricane Matthew, removing debris, repairing 41 miles of road to help provide assistance to over 800,000 affected people. In total, CORE rebuilt or repaired 4,000 houses to provide safe housing for 25,000 Haitians.

In the years following Hurricane Matthew, CORE has participated in hurricane relief efforts in the Bahamas, Puerto Rico, the Caribbean, and the United States.

In an effort to address the most urgent community needs in the U.S. Gulf states, CORE is currently operating a disaster preparedness training program, working with young adults from economically challenged neighborhoods and marginalized communities along the Hurricane Belt.

Publicity and fundraising:

The Travel Channel's food show No Reservations, hosted by Anthony Bourdain, featured Haiti as the 2011 season opener which first aired on February 28, 2011. Penn and J/P HRO were featured prominently in the show including a tour of one of the IDP camps.

On January 10, 2015, Penn held his fourth annual Sean Penn & Friends Help Haiti Home fundraiser in Beverly Hills, California, which raised over $6 million for the organization. The event featured many celebrities including former United States president, Bill Clinton and performances by Coldplay's Chris Martin and Red Hot Chili Peppers, who closed the event with a 30-minute set.

​The proceeds from downloading and streaming of Saved My Life, a song by Sia and co-written by Dua Lipa, performed during the online COVID Is No Joke live comedy fest hosted by Americares during the COVID-19 pandemic benefits AmeriCares and CORE.

See also:







St. Jude Children's Research Hospital Pictured below: We welcome you to virtually explore the halls of St. Jude in Memphis, Tennessee. Click here to take the virtual tour
Saint Jude Children's Research Hospital, founded in 1962, is a pediatric treatment and research facility focused on children's catastrophic diseases, particularly leukemia and other cancers.

The hospital costs about US$2.8 million a day to run, but patients are not charged for their care. It is located in Memphis, Tennessee, and is a nonprofit medical corporation designated as a 501(c)(3) tax-exempt organization by the Internal Revenue Service.

History:

St. Jude was founded by entertainer Danny Thomas in 1962, with help from Lemuel Diggs and Thomas' close friend from Miami, automobile dealer Anthony Abraham. The hospital was founded on the premise that "no child should die in the dawn of life".

This idea resulted from a promise that Thomas, a Maronite Catholic, had made to a saint years before the hospital was founded. Thomas was a comedian who was struggling to get a break in his career and living paycheck to paycheck. When his first child was about to be born, he attended Mass in Detroit, and put his last $7.00 in the offering bin. He prayed to Saint Jude Thaddeus for a means to provide for his family, and about a week later, he obtained a gig that paid 10 times what he had put in the offering bin.

After that time, Thomas believed in the power of prayer. He promised St. Jude Thaddeus that if the saint made him successful, he would one day build him a shrine. Years later, Thomas became an extremely successful comedian and built St. Jude Children's Research Hospital as a shrine to St. Jude Thaddeus to honor his promise.

In 1957, Thomas, a Lebanese-American, founded the American Lebanese Syrian Associated Charities (ALSAC), which helped him realize his dream. ALSAC is also the fundraising organization of St. Jude. Since St. Jude opened its doors in 1962, ALSAC has had the responsibility of raising the necessary funds to keep the hospital open. Memphis was chosen at the suggestion of Catholic Cardinal Samuel Stritch, a Tennessee native who had been a spiritual advisor to Thomas since he presided at Thomas's confirmation in Thomas's boyhood home of Toledo, Ohio.

Although it was named after Thomas's patron saint, St. Jude is not a Catholic hospital and is a secular institution not affiliated with any religious organization.

In 2007, Chili's restaurant chain pledged $50 million to fund the construction of the seven-story Chili's Care Center, adding 340,000 square feet (32,000 m2), providing space for the department of radiological services, The Pediatric Brain Tumor Consortium, two floors of outpatient clinics, one floor of inpatient clinics and rooms, two floors of laboratory space, an office floor and an unfinished level for future expansion.

In June 2008, Kay Kafe, funded by Sterling Jewelers, was opened. The space features a lounge area, a large dining area and a variety of new dining options, providing an area where families and staff can relax away from the treatment areas.

In 2014, the Marlo Thomas Center for Global Education and Collaboration was opened as part of the hospital. In 2017, the St. Jude Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences accepted its inaugural class of PhD students.

The hospital:
​
Discoveries at St. Jude have profoundly changed how doctors treat children with cancer and other catastrophic illnesses. Since St. Jude was established, the survival rate for acute lymphoblastic leukemia, the most common type of childhood cancer, has increased from 4 percent in 1962 to 94 percent today.

During this time, the overall survival rate for childhood cancers has risen from 20 percent to 80 percent. St. Jude has treated children from across the United States and from more than 70 countries. Doctors around the world consult with St. Jude on their toughest cases.

Also, St. Jude has an International Outreach Program to improve the survival rates of children with catastrophic illnesses worldwide through the transfer of knowledge, technology and organizational skills. St. Jude treats infants, children, teens, and young adults up to age 21 and for some conditions, age 25.

Corporate structure:

Donald Pinkel was the first director of St. Jude and served from 1962 until 1973. His successor, Alvin Mauer, was director from 1973 to 1983. Joseph Simone was the hospital's third director from 1983 to 1992. Arthur W. Nienhuis was CEO and director of St. Jude from 1993 until 2004. William E. Evans, the hospital's fifth director, served from 2004 to 2014. He was succeeded by current CEO and director James R. Downing on July 15, 2014.

As of 2018, St. Jude's scientific director was James I. Morgan, Ph.D.

St. Jude's board of directors is chaired by Christopher B. George, MD, and includes Joyce Aboussie, Ruth Gaviria and Tony Thomas (producer).

Awards and achievements:

St. Jude and over 46 of its staff members have been the recipients of numerous exemplary awards and achievements. For example, in 2010 St. Jude Children's Research Hospital was named the number one children's cancer hospital in the U.S by U.S. News & World Report It has also been named one of the top 10 companies to work for in academia by The Scientist for 7 successive years. 

Most notably, Peter C. Doherty, Ph.D., of St. Jude Children's Research Hospital was co-recipient of the 1996 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for work related to how the immune system kills virus-infected cells.

St. Jude Children's Research Hospital won the 2020 Webby Award for Health & Fitness in the category Apps, Mobile & Voice.

Affiliated hospitals:

St. Jude is associated with several affiliated hospitals in the United States to further its efforts beyond its own physical walls. The hospital uses its Domestic Affiliates Program to form this partnership with the other pediatric programs. This program is a network of hematology clinics, hospitals, and universities that are united under the mission of St. Jude.

These sites are used as a means of referring eligible patients to St. Jude as well as a location to administer some care. Through the Domestic Affiliates Program staff at St. Jude work together and collaborate with those at the other institutions. Affiliated sites are expected to comply with standards set by St. Jude and are audited to ensure proper and quality care.

Currently the Domestic Affiliate Clinic sites include:
St. Jude also works closely with Le Bonheur Children's Medical Center, also located in downtown Memphis. St. Jude patients needing certain procedures, such as brain surgery, may undergo procedures at LeBonheur Hospital. Both St. Jude and Le Bonheur are teaching hospitals affiliated with the University of Tennessee Health Science Center. University of Tennessee physicians training in pediatrics, surgery, radiology, and other specialties undergo service rotations at St. Jude Hospital.

The Children's Cancer Center of Lebanon was established in Beirut on April 12, 2002. The center is an affiliate of St. Jude Children's Research Hospital and works in association with the American University of Beirut Medical Center (AUBMC).

A commitment has been made to establish a US$412 million research facility in Memphis, Tennessee, one purpose of which will be to serve as a collaborative hub.

Funding:

St. Jude's is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization with annual expenses, as of 2018, of over $1.4 billion funded by nearly $1.5 billion in donations.

Donations for St. Jude comes from many sources, including government grants and insurance recoveries, but the principal source of funding (75% average) is from the American Lebanese Syrian Associated Charities (ALSAC) - a semi-independent entity that raises funds using the name of St. Jude. Of a dollar donated to the American Lebanese Syrian Associated Charities, about $0.82 goes directly to St. Jude Children's Research Hospital.

All medically eligible patients who are accepted for treatment at St. Jude are treated without regard to the family's ability to pay. St. Jude is one of a few pediatric research organizations in the United States where families never pay for treatments that are not covered by insurance, and families without insurance are never asked to pay.

In addition to providing medical services to eligible patients, St. Jude also assists families with transportation, lodging, and meals. Three separate specially-designed patient housing facilities— Tri Delta Place for short-term (up to one week), Ronald McDonald House for medium-term (one week to 3 months), and Target House for long-term (3 months or more)—provide housing for patients and up to three family members, with no cost to the patient.

These policies, along with research expenses and other costs, cause the hospital to incur more than $2.4 million in operating costs each day.

Philanthropic aid:

From 2000 to 2005, 83.7% of every dollar received by St. Jude went to the current or future needs of St. Jude. In 2002 to 2004, 47% of program expenses went to patient care and 41% to research. As of 2012, 81 cents of every dollar donated to St. Jude goes directly to its research and treatment.

To cover operating costs, ALSAC conducts many fund-raising events and activities. The WGC Invitational, a PGA Tour event, is one of the most visible fund-raising events for the hospital. Other fund-raising programs include the St. Jude Math-A-Thon, Up 'til Dawn, direct mailings, radiothons and television marketing.

St. Jude also has a merchandise catalog called the Hope Catalog. The catalog contains everything from shirts to office items, and from patient art to "Give Thanks" wristbands.

Thanks and Giving:

In November 2004, St. Jude launched its inaugural Thanks and Giving campaign which encourages consumers to help raise funds at participating retailers by adding a donation at checkout or by purchasing specialty items to benefit St. Jude. The campaign is supported by network television spots, advertisements in major publications, interactive marketing on Yahoo! and a movie trailer that runs on 20,000 screens nationwide, runs from Thanksgiving until the New Year.

The campaign was created by St. Jude National Outreach Director Marlo Thomas and her siblings Terre Thomas and Tony Thomas, children of hospital founder Danny Thomas.

Customers nationwide are asked to help raise funds at participating retailers by adding a donation at check out or by purchasing specialty items to benefit St. Jude.

Corporations give customers a host of opportunities to support St. Jude. The ultimate goal is to increase awareness with the hope that people will come to identify Thanksgiving with St. Jude, said Joyce Aboussie, vice chairwoman of the nonprofit's board. The official kick-off event for the Thanks and Giving campaign is the Give Thanks Walk. This event is a noncompetitive 5K that is now held in 75 cities across the country.

Those participating in the race are encouraged to form teams, invite family and friends, and raise money for St. Jude. These walks have raised over $11 million to date.

Other funding initiatives:

One of the hospital's most recent and successful fund-raising efforts has been the Dream Home Giveaway. The giveaway allows contest entrants to reserve tickets for $100 each to qualify to win homes valued between $300,000 and $600,000. The Dream Home Giveaway, one of the largest national fund-raising programs, is conducted in cities across the United States.

Many high schools around the country are creating student-led and student-run organizations called Team Up for St. Jude. These programs consist of high school students putting on events that raise funds and awareness for St. Jude while showing their school spirit. One of the main events is a letter-writing campaign in which the students are sent pre-written letters that include stories of a patient and ask for donations.

The high school students often have a "letter-writing party" to address and send the letters to their family and friends asking them to support St. Jude. Hoover High School (Hoover, AL) has a program that has brought in many fundraising ideas including "Team Up Week" which consists of prize wheels, inflatables, karaoke, cake walk, etc. to raise funds and awareness for the hospital. Though this program is done on a much a smaller scale than the college program Up 'til Dawn, it has the potential to grow and increase awareness.

At various college campuses, some student organizations, fraternities and sororities raise funds in a program called Up 'til Dawn Phi Mu Delta National Fraternity is partnered with St. Jude Children's Research Hospital.

The fraternity's second core belief, "I Believe in Service... service to the college; service to every group organized for the common good; service to the individual. I believe in service defined in the terms of voluntary sacrifice for the welfare of those with whom I come in contact." has helped shape many young men of admirable quality and exceptional character towards a dedication to St. Jude and other equally important causes.

Tau Kappa Epsilon (TKE) Fraternity partnered with St. Jude in the 1970s and 1980s to help raise money to fight childhood cancer. The fraternity renewed its link to St. Jude as its philanthropy of emphasis in 2008.

St. Jude is an International Philanthropic Project of Epsilon Sigma Alpha International, a co-ed service sorority. As of April 2013, ESA has raised more than $160 million in cash and pledges for St. Jude.

In 1999, the Delta Delta Delta collegiate sorority formed a philanthropic partnership with St. Jude. Tri Delta supports St. Jude nationally and supports cancer charities at a local level. At the hospital in Memphis, the sorority donated the Teen Room for teenage patients to relax and spend time with each other.

In July 2010, Tri Delta completed its "10 by 10" goal, raising over $10 million in less than four years, six years short of the original goal. Those funds were used to sponsor the Tri Delta Patient Care Floor in the Chili's Care Center.

Upon completion of the "10 by 10" campaign, the sorority announced a new fundraising goal of $15 million in 5 years to name the Specialty Clinic located in the Patient Care Center. Three and a half years later, Delta Delta Delta had raised $15 million and completed its goal ahead of schedule. In July 2014, the on-campus residence center was renamed Tri Delta Place as a result of Tri Delta's pledge of $60 Million in 10 years.

In July 2005, Kappa Alpha Psi (ΚΑΨ) fraternity announced St. Jude Children's Research Hospital as its national philanthropic partner. Since that time, members across the country have joined in the fight against pediatric cancer, sickle cell disease, and other catastrophic illnesses. Kappa Alpha Psi has answered the call to service by raising more than $400,000—representing the largest contribution that Kappa Alpha Psi has donated to any charity.

Members of Kappa Alpha Psi have committed to raise $500,000 in support of the hospital's sickle cell program. St. Jude has one of the largest pediatric sickle cell research and treatment programs in the world. St. Jude is the first known hospital in the world to cure sickle cell disease through bone marrow transplantation.

Today, bone marrow transplantation still offers the only cure for sickle cell disease. Members of Kappa Alpha Psi reach out to churches in their local communities to host a Sunday of Hope each January in support of St. Jude. January was selected because this is the month of Kappa's founding.

During the Sunday of Hope, churches will take up a special offering in honor of the patients and families of St. Jude. At the 2008 ALSAC/St. Jude Board and Awards Dinner, Kappa Alpha Psi received the Volunteer Group of the Year Award for their efforts in the inaugural year of the Sunday of Hope program which secured more than 130 churches to participate and raised more than $280,000.

Lambda Theta Alpha sorority serves thousands of hours each year to a variety of philanthropic causes and needs. In the effort to create a more united and bigger impact nationally, Lambda Theta Alpha selected a national philanthropy. In January 2010, LTA became an official collegiate partner to St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, becoming the first individual Latino Greek organization to commit fully to the hospital's efforts.

LTA has pledged to raise awareness about childhood cancer and St. Jude in the Latin community, as well as fundraise for the hospital through a variety of events and programs.

Past events have included: sporting tournaments, charity galas, informational meetings, and much more.

Another successful event is the Country Cares for St. Jude Kids radiothon. During these events, country radio stations around the country allow those touched by St. Jude to share stories with listeners, highlighting patient stories, and having exciting promotions. Listeners are encouraged to call in and become a Partner In Hope by making either a one-time or monthly donation to the hospital. The 200 stations involved have helped raise over $400 million since 1989. Country artists have also supported St. Jude through concerts, hospital visits, call-ins, and other forms of support.

Eagles for St. Jude was a program created in 2007 by Stanford Financial Group, when it paid to become title sponsor of the St. Jude Classic, the annual PGA Tour event in Memphis. The program, and sponsorship, ended in February 2009, when it was found that Stanford Financial Group was nothing more than a Ponzi scheme, having defrauded investors out of $8 billion, with a small fraction of that stolen money having been channeled into the Eagles for St. Jude program.

McDonald's Monopoly Game:

In 1995, St. Jude received an anonymous letter postmarked in Dallas, Texas, containing a $1 million winning McDonald's Monopoly game piece. McDonald's officials came to the hospital, accompanied by a representative from the accounting firm Arthur Andersen, and verified it as a winner.

Although game rules prohibited the transfer of prizes, and even after learning that the piece was sent by an individual involved in an embezzlement scheme intended to defraud McDonald's, McDonald's waived the rule and made the annual $50,000 annuity payments.

Celebrity visitors:

Over the years, many celebrities such as musicians, political figures, actors and others have become involved with this foundation, visiting the hospital to meet some of the kids and/or filming commercials to encourage individuals to donate to St. Jude. These include:
See also:







Humanitarian CrisisPictured below: Launch of the Global Humanitarian Appeal 2017
​A humanitarian crisis (or "humanitarian disaster") is defined as a singular event or a series of events that are threatening in terms of health, safety or well-being of a community or large group of people. It may be an internal or external conflict and usually occurs throughout a large land area. Local, national and international responses are necessary in such events.

Each humanitarian crisis is caused by different factors and as a result, each different humanitarian crisis requires a unique response targeted towards the specific sectors affected.

This can result in either short-term or long-term damage. Humanitarian crises can either be natural disasters, man-made disasters or complex emergencies.

In such cases, complex emergencies occur as a result of several factors or events that prevent a large group of people from accessing their fundamental needs, such as food, clean water or safe shelter.

Examples of humanitarian crises include armed conflicts, epidemics, famine, natural disasters and other major emergencies. If such a crisis causes large movements of people it could also become a refugee crisis. For these reasons, humanitarian crises are often interconnected and complex and several national and international agencies play roles in the repercussions of the incidences.

​Categories:

There is no simple categorization of humanitarian crises. Different communities and agencies tend to have definitions related to the concrete situations they face. A local fire service will tend to focus on issues such as flooding and weather induced crises. Medical and health related organizations are naturally focused on sudden crises to the health of a community.

An ongoing or lingering pandemic may amount to a humanitarian crisis, especially where there are increasing levels of virulence, or rates of infection as in the case of AIDS, bird flu or Tuberculosis. Major health-related problems such as cancer, global warming typically require an accentuated or punctuated mass-event to justify a label of "crisis" or "disaster".

The International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC) lists categories which include different types of natural disasters, technological disasters (i.e. hazardous material spills, Chernobyl-type of nuclear accidents, chemical explosions) and long-term man-made disasters related to "civil strife, civil war and international war".

Internationally, the humanitarian response sector has tended to distinguish between natural disasters and complex emergencies which are related to armed conflict and wars.

Impacts: 

Women's social status in humanitarian crises:

Socially, women and children (mostly girls) receive a significantly decreased amount of attention in response to humanitarian crises. Women and children make up 3 quarters of refugees or displaced persons at risk post-crisis.

A quarter of this population is of reproduction age and a fifth of this population is likely to be pregnant. In times of emergency and such crises, deaths associated with pregnancy, reproductive health, sexual violence and sexual exploitation increase drastically especially amongst females.

During such emergencies, women lose access to family planning services, prenatal care, postpartum care and other health services. The heightened risk of female health and safety makes them vulnerable to disease, violence and death.

Non-profit organizations such as the Women's Refugee Commission deal with aiding particularly women suffering from various types of humanitarian crises. According to the Women's Refugee Commission, during the first hours of a humanitarian crisis, women and young children are at most risk.

During such an event, agencies and organizations approach matters variably. However, the top critical requirements within hours and months of the crises include: keeping the refugees and internally displaced persons away from danger, allowing access to fundamental needs such as food and healthcare, identification information, preventing sexual violence and others.

Socio-economic realities of humanitarian crises:

Economic issues can lead to humanitarian crises or humanitarian crises can lead to economic downfalls. If it occurs after a humanitarian crisis affects a nation, it is imperative to return the livelihoods in the economic settings of the nation.

One of the critical needs on the Women's Refugee Commission's list is providing education and economic opportunities in order to maintain the economic qualities of the region. It is done by using the skills of the displaced persons or refugees involved to provide them with opportunities to gain income.

If it occurs as a cause of humanitarian crisis, the society would have been in a state of civil insecurity and economic shortfalls, which could cause the government to collapse. This can also result from food insecurity, famines, corruptions and various other issues. Direct effects of this situation include human rights violations, violence and mass murders.

Environmental and ecological impacts:

In the cases of humanitarian crises, especially natural disasters such as tornadoes, tsunamis and earthquakes, these incidences leave environmental and ecological impacts on the regions affected. The aftermaths of natural disasters can lead to a significant decrease in natural resources while making the region prone to future issues.

For example, if a forest fire occurs in a large region, the area may be susceptible to air pollution, dust clouds, release of carcinogenic gases and others. Forest ecological wildlife, for example, is severely impacted by such events. In the cases of water natural disasters such as floods and tsunamis, extensive damage due to the water is prevalent. Fish, corals and other ocean life is impacted, which further impacts the livelihoods of fishermen.

Sustainable solutions:

There is no singular solution to any one humanitarian crisis. Often, the primary cause of a humanitarian crisis is intertwined with several other factors. Further, one repercussion can lead to another which may lead to another.

For instance, in the case of a flood, fish and ocean life is impacted, an environmental and ecological impact. This can further impact humans the source of income for fishermen, an economical impact. This causes the residents of this particular area to be stripped from their source of food and their culture of consuming sea fish.

This can lead to women and children being forced to work in dangerous conditions to gain income and food, a social impact. Evidently, one crisis can have many impacts that are interconnected with one another and there is no single solution. The Feinstein International Center at Tufts University works to understand and find solutions to the intersection of various factors that contribute to humanitarian crisis.

Preparing for humanitarian crises:

Disaster preparedness is critical to building both national and international capacity to prevent, respond to, and recover from humanitarian emergencies.

Disaster preparedness activities can be categorized into material preparedness, e.g.
  • building to code,
  • avoiding building in hazardous areas,
  • strengthening homes,
  • preparing emergency kits, etc.

and into behavioral preparedness,
  • e.g.,  training,
  • early warning,
  • disaster insurance,
  • etc. 

The international community possesses five key to key entities for guidance programming, research, and funding for disaster preparedness capacity-building:
  1. United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction: The United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction implements the United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR). The UNISDR, led by the United Nations Special Representative of the Secretary General for Disaster Risk Reduction, serves, “…as the focal point in the United Nations system for the coordination of disaster reduction and to ensure synergies among disaster reduction activities". A component of UNISDR work is implementation of the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030.
  2. International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC): The IFRC operates around the globe and across all phases of the humanitarian programme cycle, helping affected nations by working with member National Societies and the international community to prepare for, respond to, and recover from “…natural and man-made disasters in non-conflict situations."
  3. Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA): OCHA is a United Nations office, “…responsible for bringing together humanitarian actors to ensure a coherent response to emergencies." OCHA's leader operates as both the Under-Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs and as the Emergency Relief Coordinator, advocating for increased awareness of, preparedness for, and response to humanitarian emergencies worldwide. As the Emergency Relief Coordinator, the OCHA lead also chairs the Inter-Agency Standing Committee.
  4. Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC): The IASC provides a forum for both UN-affiliated and non-UN-affiliated organizations to coordinate action regarding humanitarian policies, advocacy, and response evaluation and improvement. In 2005, the IASC released its Transformative Agenda with 10 protocols to, “…improve the effectiveness of humanitarian response through greater predictability, accountability, responsibility and partnership". Protocol 8: “Common Framework for Preparedness” and Protocol 9: ”Emergency Response Preparedness” provide guidance countries and humanitarians can implement for risk assessment and preparedness planning. Additionally, IASC also oversees global humanitarian clusters as a part of the Cluster Approach.
  5. Global Clusters: To aid coordination during the humanitarian programme cycle, the UN established the Cluster Approach. Clusters are groups of humanitarian organizations with explicit responsibilities for coordinating action within each humanitarian sector. Preparedness is fundamental to the Cluster Approach, with leaders within each global cluster working to build international capacity by developing standards, setting policy, and sharing leading practices for their sector before a humanitarian emergency occurs.

​In addition to these five disaster preparedness entities, there is a multiplicity of government donor agencies that fund disaster preparedness activities, including:
Additionally, there many philanthropies that support disaster preparedness, such as the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.

See also:







Charity NavigatorPictured below: Understanding the Charity Navigator Advisory System
Charity Navigator is a charity assessment organization that evaluates charitable organizations in the United States, operating as a free 501(c)(3) organization, that accepts no advertising or donations from the organizations it evaluates.

Charity Navigator was launched in spring 2001 by John P. (Pat) Dugan, a wealthy pharmaceutical executive and philanthropist. The group's mission was to help "donors make informed giving decisions and enabling well-run charities to demonstrate their commitment to proper stewardship" of donor dollars. 

Initially, Charity Navigator provided financial ratings for 1,100 charities, and it has data on 8,500 as of mid-2017.

In 2011, Kiplinger's Personal Finance selected Charity Navigator as a Money Management Innovation for "helping millions of people become philanthropists," and it was on Time magazine's top 50 websites of 2006 list.

However, in a 2014 Chronicle of Philanthropy interview on the nonprofit sector, Nicholas Kristof identified it with a trend he deplored: "There is too much emphasis on inputs and not enough on impact," Kristof said. "This has been worsened by an effort to create more accountability through sites like Charity Navigator. There is so much emphasis now on expense ratios that there is an under-investment in administration and efficiency."

A 2014 survey of attitudes toward charity evaluation lauded Charity Navigator in six of seven categories.

Evaluation method:

Using publicly available tax returns (IRS Form 990) filed with the Internal Revenue Service and information posted by charities on their web sites, the Charity Navigator rating system bases its evaluations in two broad areas—financial health and accountability/transparency.

Limitations of initial methodology:

This method was criticized in an article in the Stanford Social Innovation Review for taking into account only a single year's IRS Form 990. This can lead to significant fluctuation in the ranking of a charity from year to year. Also, the focus on the IRS Form 990 has itself been criticized, as the accuracy and reliability of IRS Form 990 data is questionable.

Form 990 categorizes a charity's expenditures into three broad categories that are open to accounting manipulation. The nonprofit sector does not have the strict financial regulation and transparency required from public corporations (under the Securities Act of 1933, the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, and the Sarbanes-Oxley Act, among others), creating limitations on how accurately a charity's efficiency can be graded based on a tax return.

Particularly relevant to Charity Navigator's methodology is that 59% of the 58,000 charities receiving public donations in 1999 failed to report any fundraising expenditures, illustrating a potential problem with relying on Form 990 figures alone when analyzing an organization.

It only rates the 6% of charity organizations in the United States that have over $1 million in annual revenue (these 6% get 94% of the revenues that come into the nonprofit sector each year)

Revisions:

In December 2008, President and CEO Ken Berger announced on his blog that the organization intends to expand its rating system to include measures of the outcomes of the work of charities it evaluates.

This was described in further detail in a podcast for The Chronicle of Philanthropy in September 2009. The article explained that plans for a revised rating system will also include measures of accountability (including transparency, governance and management practices) as well as outcomes (the results of the work of the charity).

In July 2010, Charity Navigator announced its first major revamp. This revamping begins what the organization states is the process to move toward CN 3.0, which is a three-dimensional rating system that will include what they consider the critical elements to consider in making a wise charitable investment:
  1. financial health (Charity Navigator evaluated this from its inception),
  2. accountability and transparency (begun in July 2010) and
  3. results reporting (slated to begin rating this dimension in July 2012).

After collecting data for more than a year, in September 2011 Charity Navigator launched CN 2.0, which is a two-dimensional rating system that rates a charity's (1) financial health and (2) accountability and transparency.

2013 expansion:

In January 2013, Charity Navigator announced another expansion to its rating methodology, "Results Reporting: The Third Dimension of Intelligent Giving." Because mission-related results are the very reason that charities exist, Charity Navigator developed this new rating dimension to specifically examine how well charities report on their results.

The new rankings now include "various criteria, including ... privacy policies"

2020 expansion:

In July 2020, Charity Navigator announced an additional nonprofit rating system, Encompass. The new Encompass Rating System analyzes nonprofit performance based on four key indicators:
  1. Finance & Accountability
  2. Impact & Results
  3. Leadership & Adaptability
  4. Culture & Community

This alternative methodology allows the organization to increase the total number of rated nonprofits from 9,000 to 160,000 at launch. The rating system launched with the first key indicator, Finance & Accountability, with a plan to release additional indicators over the next 18-24 months.

Improvements in response:

Some charities, in response, began to supply more information. The New York Times reported in 2010 that one non-profit began "reporting on its finances using the same format as the 10-K."

Criticism:

In response to an op-ed authored by Charity Navigator's CEO entitled "The Elitist Philanthropy of so-called Effective Altruism," the co-founder of the Centre for Effective Altruism wrote "What Charity Navigator Gets Wrong About Effective Altruism."

See also:







Charities, including  in the United StatesPictured below: Map of The Largest Non-profit in Each State
Click here for a List of Charities headquartered in the United States.

A charitable organization or charity is an organization whose primary objectives are philanthropy and social well-being (e.g. educational, religious or other activities serving the public interest or common good).

The legal definition of a charitable organization (and of charity) varies between countries and in some instances regions of the country. The regulation, the tax treatment, and the way in which charity law affects charitable organizations also vary. Charitable organizations may not use any of its funds to profit individual persons or entities.

Financial figures (e.g. tax refund, revenue from fundraising, revenue from sale of goods and services or revenue from investment) are indicators to assess the financial sustainability of a charity, especially to charity evaluators. This information can impact a charity's reputation with donors and societies, and thus the charity's financial gains.

Charitable organizations often depend partly on donations from businesses. Such donations to charitable organizations represent a major form of corporate philanthropy.

In order to meet the exempt organizational test requirements, it has to be exclusively organized and operated. In order to receive and pass the exemption test, charitable organization must follow the public interest and all exempt income should be for the public interest. For example, in many countries of the Commonwealth, charitable organizations must demonstrate that they provide a public benefit.

Charities based in the United States:
​
In the United States, a charitable organization is an organization operated for purposes that are beneficial to the public interest. There are different types of charitable organizations.

Every U.S. and foreign charity that qualifies as tax-exempt under Section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code is considered a "private foundation" unless it demonstrates to the IRS that it falls into another category. Generally, any organization that is not a private foundation (i.e., it qualifies as something else) is usually a public charity as described in Section 509(a) of the Internal Revenue Code.

In addition, a private foundation usually derives its principal funding from an individual, family, corporation, or some other single source and is more often than not a grantmaker and does not solicit funds from the public.

In contrast, a foundation or public charity generally receives grants from individuals, government, and private foundations, and while some public charities engage in grantmaking activities, most conduct direct service or other tax-exempt activities.

Foundations that are generally grantmakers (i.e. they use their endowment to make grants to other organizations, which in turn carry out the goals of the foundation indirectly) are usually called "grantmaker" or "non-operating" foundations.

The requirements and procedures for forming charitable organizations vary from state to state, as do the registration and filing requirements for charitable organizations that conduct charitable activities, solicit charitable contributions, or hire professional fundraisers. In practice, the detailed definition of "charitable organization" is determined by the requirements of state law where the charitable organization operates, and the requirements for federal tax relief by the IRS.

Resources exist to provide information, even rankings, of US charities.

Federal tax relief:

Federal tax law provides tax benefits to nonprofit organizations recognized as exempt from federal income tax under section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code (IRC). The benefits of 501(c)(3) status include exemption from federal income tax as well as eligibility to receive tax deductible charitable contributions. There was a total of $281.86 billion tax deductible donations by individuals in 2017, and the fastest growing form of giving was with stock.

To qualify for 501(c)(3) status most organizations must apply to the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) for such status.

Several requirements must be met for a charitable organization to obtain 501(c)(3) status.

These include the organization being organized as a corporation, trust, or unincorporated association, and the organization's organizing document (such as the articles of incorporation, trust documents, or articles of association) must limit its purposes to being charitable, and permanently dedicate its assets to charitable purposes.

The organization must refrain from undertaking a number of other activities such as participating in the political campaigns of candidates for local, state or federal office, and must ensure that its earnings do not benefit any individual. 

Most tax exempt organizations are required to file annual financial reports (IRS Form 990) at the state and federal level. A tax exempt organization's 990 and some other forms are required to be made available to public scrutiny.

The types of charitable organization that are considered by the IRS to be organized for the public benefit include those that are organized for:
  • Relief of the poor, the distressed, or the underprivileged
  • Advancement of religion
  • Advancement of education or science
  • Construction or maintenance of public buildings, monuments, or works
  • Lessening the burdens of government
  • Lessening of neighborhood tensions
  • Elimination of prejudice and discrimination
  • Defense of human and civil rights secured by law
  • Combating community deterioration and juvenile delinquency.

A number of other organizations may also qualify for exempt status, including those organized for religious, scientific, literary and educational purposes, as well as those for testing for public safety and for fostering national or international amateur sports competition, and for the prevention of cruelty to children or animals.

Click on any of the following blue hyperlinks for more about Charities around the world:







Outreach Programs, including Social Work Pictured below: Important Job Skills Social Workers Need*
* -- Important Job Skills Social Workers Need: ___________________________________________________________________________

Outreach Programs:

​Outreach is the activity of providing services to any population that might not otherwise have access to those services.

A key component of outreach is that the group providing it is not stationary, but mobile; in other words, it involves meeting someone in need of an outreach service at the location where they are.

In addition to delivering services, outreach has an educational role, raising the awareness of existing services. It includes identification of under-served populations and service referral.

Outreach is often meant to fill in the gap in the services provided by mainstream (often governmental) services, and is often carried out by non-profit, nongovernmental organizations. This is a major element differentiating outreach from public relations.

Compared with staff providing traditional services, outreach staff may be less qualified but more highly motivated.

Three different types of outreach have been identified:
  1. domiciliary (undertaken at individual homes),
  2. detached (undertaken in public environments and targeting individuals),
  3. and peripatetic (undertaken at public or private environments and targeting organizations rather than individuals).

Satellite outreach is where services are provided at a dedicated site.

Outreach tools include leaflets, newsletters, advertising stalls and displays, and dedicated events. Outreach commonly takes place physically at local community institutions such as libraries, community centres and markets. Compared with traditional service providers, outreach services are provided closer to where people live, are voluntary, and have fewer, if any, enforceable obligations.

Outreach can target various populations, from sex workers and drug users to museum goers.

​See also: ___________________________________________________________________________

​Social work:

Social work is an academic discipline and practice-based profession that concerns itself with individuals, families, groups, and communities in an effort to enhance social functioning and overall well-being.

Social functioning defines as the ability of an individual to perform their social roles within their own self, their immediate social environment, and the society at large.

Social work applies social sciences, such as sociology, psychology, political science, public health, community development, law, and economics, to engage with client systems, conduct assessments, and develop interventions to solve social and personal problems; and to bring about social change.

Social work practice is often divided into micro-work, which involves working directly with individuals or small groups; and macro-work, which involves working with communities, and - within social policy - fostering change on a larger scale.

The social work industry developed in the 19th century, with some of its roots in voluntary philanthropy and in grassroots organizing. However, responses to social needs had existed long before then, primarily from private charities and from religious organizations.

The effects of the Industrial Revolution and of the Great Depression of the 1930s placed pressure on social work to become a more defined discipline.

​Definition:

Social work is a broad profession that intersects with several disciplines. Social work organizations offer the following definitions:

“Social work is a practice-based profession and an academic discipline that promotes social change and development, social cohesion, and the empowerment and liberation of people.

Principles of social justice, human rights, collective responsibility and respect for diversities are central to social work.

Underpinned by theories of social work, social sciences, humanities, and indigenous knowledge, social work engages people and structures to address life challenges and enhance well-being." –International Federation of Social Workers

"Social work is a profession concerned with helping individuals, families, groups and communities to enhance their individual and collective well-being. It aims to help people develop their skills and their ability to use their resources and those of the community to resolve problems.

Social work is concerned with individual and personal problems but also with broader social issues such as poverty, unemployment, and domestic violence." –Canadian Association of Social Workers

Social work practice consists of the professional application of social work values, principles, and techniques to one or more of the following ends: helping people obtain tangible services; counseling and psychotherapy with individuals, families, and groups; helping communities or groups provide or improve social and health services, and participating in legislative processes.

The practice of social work requires knowledge of human development and behavior; of social and economic, and cultural institutions; and the interaction of all these factors." –National Association of Social Workers

"Social workers work with individuals and families to help improve outcomes in their lives. This may be helping to protect vulnerable people from harm or abuse or supporting people to live independently.

Social workers support people, act as advocates and direct people to the services they may require. Social workers often work in multi-disciplinary teams alongside health and education professionals." –British Association of Social Workers

​Transtheoretical models:

Social work is an interdisciplinary profession, meaning it draws from a number of areas, such as (but not limited to): 
Field work is a distinctive attribution to social work pedagogy. This equips the trainee in understanding the theories and models within the field of work. Professional practitioners from multicultural aspects have their roots in this social work immersion engagements from the early 19th century in the western countries.

As an example, here are some of the models and theories used within social work practice:
Profession:

Abraham Flexner in a 1915 lecture, "Is Social Work a Profession?", delivered at the National Conference on Charities and Corrections, examined the characteristics of a profession concerning social work.

It is not a 'single model', such as that of health, followed by medical professions such as nurses and doctors, but an integrated profession, and the likeness with medical profession is that social work requires a continued study for professional development to retain knowledge and skills that are evidence-based by practice standards. A social work professional's services lead toward the aim of providing beneficial services to individuals, dyads, families, groups, organizations, and communities to achieve optimum psychosocial functioning.

Social  Work's seven core functions are described by Popple and Leighninger as:
  1. Engagement — the social worker must first engage the client in early meetings to promote a collaborative relationship
  2. Assessment — data must be gathered that will guide and direct a plan of action to help the client
  3. Planning — negotiate and formulate an action plan
  4. Implementation — promote resource acquisition and enhance role performance
  5. Monitoring/Evaluation — on-going documentation through short-term goal attainment of the extent to which client is following through
  6. Supportive Counseling — affirming, challenging, encouraging, informing, and exploring options
  7. Graduated Disengagement — seeking to replace the social worker with a naturally occurring resource

Six other core values identified by the National Association of Social Workers' (NASW) Code of Ethics are:
  1. Service — help people in need and address social problems
  2. Social Justice — challenge social injustices
  3. Dignity and worth of the person
  4. Importance of human relationships
  5. Integrity — behave in a trustworthy manner
  6. Competence — practice within the areas of one's areas of expertise and develop and enhance professional skill

A historic and defining feature of social work is the profession's focus on individual well-being in a social context and the well-being of society. Social workers promote social justice and social change with and on behalf of clients. A "client" can be an individual, family, group, organization, or community.

In the broadening scope of the modern social worker's role, some practitioners have in recent years traveled to war-torn countries to provide psychosocial assistance to families and survivors. Ethical values are important in the field of social work. The 2019 study indicates that social work leaders’ authenticity positively influences their dispositions toward ethical decision-making.

Newer areas of social work practice involve management science. The growth of "social work administration" for transforming social policies into services and directing activities of an organization toward achievement of goals is a related field. 

Helping clients with accessing benefits such as unemployment insurance and disability benefits, to assist individuals and families in building savings and acquiring assets to improve their financial security over the long-term, to manage large operations, etc. requires social workers to know financial management skills to help clients and organization's to be financially self-sufficient.

Financial social work also helps clients with low-income or low to middle-income, people who do not have a banking account or individuals who have a bank account but tend to rely on high cost non-bank providers for their financial transactions, with better mediation with financial institutions and induction of money management skills.

Another area that social workers are focusing is risk management, risk in social work is taken as Knight in 1921 defined "If you don't even know for sure what will happen, but you know the odds, that is risk and If you don't even know the odds, that is uncertainty." Risk management in social work means minimizing the risks while increasing potential benefits for clients by analyzing the risks and benefits in the duty of care or decisions.

In the United States, according to the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), a branch of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, professional social workers are the largest group of mental health services providers.

There are more clinically trained social workers—over 200,000—than psychiatrists, psychologists, and psychiatric nurses combined. Federal law and the National Institutes of Health recognize social work as one of five core mental health professions.

Examples of fields a social worker may be employed in are:
Qualifications:

The education of social workers begins with a bachelor's degree (BA, BSc, BSSW, BSW, etc.) or diploma in social work or a Bachelor of Social Services. Some countries offer postgraduate degrees in social work, such as a master's degree (MSW, MSSW, MSS, MSSA, MA, MSc, MRes, MPhil.) or doctoral studies (Ph.D. and DSW (Doctor of Social Work)). Increasingly, graduates of social work programs pursue post-masters and post-doctoral studies, including training in psychotherapy.

In the United States, social work undergraduate and master's programs are accredited by the Council on Social Work Education. A CSWE-accredited degree is required for one to become a state-licensed social worker. The CSWE even accredits online master's in social work programs in traditional and advanced standing options.

In 1898, the New York Charity Organization Society, which was the Columbia University School of Social Work's earliest entity, began offering formal "social philanthropy" courses, marking both the beginning date for social work education in the United States, as well as the launching of professional social work.

Several countries and jurisdictions require registration or licensure of people working as social workers, and there are mandated qualifications. In other places, a professional association sets academic requirements for admission to the profession. The success of these professional bodies' efforts is demonstrated in that these same requirements are recognized by employers as necessary for employment.

Professional associations:

Social workers have several professional associations that provide ethical guidance and other forms of support for their members and social work in general. These associations may be international, continental, semi-continental, national, or regional.

The main international associations are the International Federation of Social Workers (IFSW) and the International Association of Schools of Social Work (IASSW).

The largest professional social work association in the United States is the National Association of Social Workers.

There also exist organizations that represent clinical social workers such as The American Association of Psychoanalysis in Clinical Social Work. AAPCSW is a national organization representing social workers who practice psychoanalytic social work and psychoanalysis.

There are also several states with Clinical Social Work Societies which represent all social workers who conduct psychotherapy from a variety of theoretical frameworks with families, groups, and individuals.

The Association for Community Organization and Social Administration (ACOSA) is a professional organization for social workers who practice within the community organizing, policy, and political spheres.

In the UK, the professional association is the British Association of Social Workers (BASW) with just over 18,000 members (as of August 2015).

The Code of Ethics of the US-based National Association of Social Workers provides a code for daily conduct and a set of principles rooted in 6 core values: 
  1. service,
  2. social justice,
  3. dignity and worth of the person,
  4. importance of human relationships, integrity, and competence.

Trade unions representing social workers:
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In the United Kingdom, just over half of social workers are employed by local authorities, and many of these are represented by UNISON, the public sector employee union. Smaller numbers are members of the Unite the Union and the GMB (trade union).

The British Union of Social Work Employees (BUSWE) has been a section of the Community (trade union) since 2008.

While at that stage, not a union, the British Association of Social Workers operated a professional advice and representation service from the early 1990s. Social Work qualified staff who are also experienced in employment law and industrial relations provide the kind of representation you would expect from a trade union in the event of a grievance, discipline or conduct matters specifically in respect of professional conduct or practice.

However, this service depended on the goodwill of employers to allow the representatives to be present at these meetings, as only trade unions have the legal right and entitlement of representation in the workplace.

By 2011 several councils had realized that they did not have to permit BASW access, and those that were challenged by the skilled professional representation of their staff were withdrawing permission. For this reason BASW once again took up trade union status by forming its arms-length trade union section, SWU (Social Workers Union).

This gives the legal right to represent its members whether the employer or Trades Union Congress (TUC) recognizes SWU or not.

In 2015 the TUC was still resisting SWU application for admission to congress membership and while most employers are not making formal statements of recognition until the TUC may change its policy, they are all legally required to permit SWU (BASW) representation at internal discipline hearings, etc.

Use of information technology in social work:

Information technology is vital in social work, it transforms the documentation part of the work into electronic media. This makes the process transparent, accessible and provides data for analytics. Observation is a tool used in social work for developing solutions. 

Anabel Quan-Haase in Technology and Society defines the term surveillance as “watching over” (Quan-Haase. 2016. P 213), she continues to explain that the observation of others socially and behaviorally is natural, but it becomes more like surveillance when the purpose of the observation is to keep guard over someone (Quan-Haase. 2016. P 213).

Often, at the surface level, the use of surveillance and surveillance technologies within the social work profession is seemingly an unethical invasion of privacy. When engaging with the social work code of ethics a little more deeply, it becomes obvious that the line between ethical and unethical becomes blurred.

​Within the social work code of ethics, there are multiple mentions of the use of technology within social work practice. The one that seems the most applicable to surveillance or artificial intelligence is 5.02 article f, “When using electronic technology to facilitate evaluation or research” and it goes on to explain that clients should be informed when technology is being used within the practice (Workers. 2008. Article 5.02).

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Humanitarian Crisis at the US/Mexican BorderPictured below: DISTURBING: Photo Of Drowned Father And Daughter Highlights Migrants’ Tragic Struggles. Óscar Alberto Martínez Ramírez and daughter Valeria drowned on the bank of the Rio Grande.​
US-Mexico border crisis refers to the policies that have led to Central American migrants seeking asylum in the United States at the Mexico-United States border.

Background:

The agents of the U.S. Border Patrol, a federal law enforcement agency, are tasked with deterring, detecting, and apprehending any person crossing into the United States illegally at any point not designated as a port of entry by the Attorney General of the United States.

Additionally, agents interdict and seize contraband smuggled into the United States through non ports of entry. Border Patrol Agents are both immigration and customs officials.

In several places dangers including kidnapping, murder and sexual assault threaten thousands
of Central American migrants who have been clustered in Mexican border cities like Matamoros for months, blocked from asking asylum in the United States because of new restriction policies.

The American government and United Nations provided free transportation to return refugees to their homes in Central America, but many others who are stuck in Matamoros said that desperation had led them to consider treacherous and potentially life-threatening border crossings — by charging across the river, climbing into hot and airless tractor-trailers driven by human smugglers, or both.

In 2019 as the Border Patrol reported, the number of migrants caught hiding in tractor-trailers along the border has gone up by 40 percent this year, according to the Border Patrol.

2021 surge in unaccompanied minors:

Early during President Joe Biden's tenure, a surge in unaccompanied minors at the U.S. border stirred controversy. According to a 2021 Politico report, Republicans expected prior to Joe Biden taking office that there would be a border surge at the start of 2021 (due to seasonal patterns and regional crises) and coordinated to make it a central issue in the lead-up to the 2022 mid-term elections. 

The number of migrants arriving in the United States from Central America had been rising since April 2020 due to ongoing violence, natural disasters, food insecurity, and poverty in the region. In February 2021, the United States Border Patrol reported a 61% increase in encounters with unaccompanied children from the month before.

The reported 5,858 encounters in January to 9,457 in February constituted the largest one-month percentage increase in encounters with unaccompanied children since U.S. Customs and Border Protection began recording data in 2010.

By the end of April 2021, the number of children held in Border Patrol facilities fell by 84%, placing them under HHS care.

​Trump administration:

In September 2019, the US Supreme Court allowed a new ruling to take effect that could curtail most asylum applications at the border. The ruling would demand that most asylum seekers who pass through another country first will be ineligible for asylum at the U.S.'s southern border. 

Mark A. Morgan, acting commissioner of the U.S. Customs and Border Protection, stated the ruling was set to take effect on the week of October 8, 2019. In an interview with Time, Donald Trump criticized the Obama administration for the separations immigration policy.

Trump stated that Mexican immigrants bring crime and drugs to the United States. Trump has frequently clashed with so-called "sanctuary cities," where migrants are shielded from the U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement by local authorities, and has tried to deny federal funding to those cities. 

As the Trump administration stated, the policy is necessary to decrease the "fraudulent" asylum claims among the entrance of Central American families coming to the border.

The Trump administration tried to stop migrants from getting into the United States at all, asking them to take a number at the border and to wait until they are called for a chance to have their asylum cases heard. As a result, in September 2019, the US immigration court faced over 1 million waiting for their cases to be heard, matching the highest backlog seen in the US.

Reaction:

The photograph of the bodies of a 25-year-old father, Óscar Alberto Martínez Ramírez, and his 23-month-old daughter Angie Valeria, who drowned while attempting to cross the river at the border crossing between Matamoros, Mexico, and Brownsville, Texas in June 2019, has been published around the world, raising horror and shame over America's current immigration policy. (See above photograph!)

They left El Salvador with a humanitarian visa in Mexico because of poverty two months earlier and had been awaiting asylum in the US. For the death of Ramírez and his daughter, Pope Francis stated that he was "profoundly saddened". He has also criticized anyone who wanted to build a wall along the border, stating they are "not a Christian".

In September 2019, a complaint "demanding an immediate end" to the government turning away pregnant asylum-seekers under the Trump administration's "Remain in Mexico" policy was presented by the American Civil Liberties Union. The ACLU reported that a significant number of pregnant women who were returned to Mexico by the Department of Homeland Security have faced dangers in border towns because of a lack of medical care and unsafe living conditions. 

Also in the month, hundreds of protesters gathered in Southern California to illustrate their objection to the border crisis when Trump was visiting a section of the US-Mexico border in San Diego to see part of the wall.

Biden administration:
See also: Immigration policy of Joe Biden

After Joe Biden won the 2020 United States presidential election, there was a resurgence in Central American migrant caravan activities. This may be related to Biden's planned amnesty for illegal immigrants within his first 100 days in office.

On January 13, just one week prior to the Joe Biden's presidential inauguration, more than 3000 people departed Honduras and El Salvador for the United States. That number grew to approximately 7000-8000 one week later.

On January 16, Guatemala and Mexico deployed the military to their borders, in an attempt to stop the migrant caravan from transiting through their countries on the way to the United States. Three days later, the migrant caravans reportedly dissolved in the Guatemalan-Honduran border region, and most its participants were deported back to Honduras.

On January 20, 2021, soon after his inauguration, Biden halted the construction of Trump's Mexican border wall, ending the national emergency declared by the Trump administration in February 2018.

In February 2021, a group of migrants was found massacred in northern Mexico. A few months later, the US Customs and Border Patrol reported that various colored bracelets with writing on them being used as a method to track a migrant's payment status to their coyote (smuggler) and drug cartels that control various parts of Mexico. The bracelets reportedly are used for tracking status of protection from cartel actions such as death, kidnapping, and the right to be in cartel controlled territory or to cross the border into the US.

In March 2021, amid a rise in migrants entering the U.S. from Mexico, Biden told migrants: "Don't come over." He said that the U.S. was arranging a plan for migrants to "apply for asylum in place", without leaving their original locations.

In the meantime, migrant adults "are being sent back", Biden said, in reference to the continuation of the Trump administration's Title 42 policy for quick deportations. Biden earlier announced that his administration would not deport unaccompanied migrant children; the rise in arrivals of such children exceeded the capacity of facilities meant to shelter them (before they were sent to sponsors), leading the Biden administration in March to direct the Federal Emergency Management Agency to help manage these children.

On March 24, 2021, Biden tasked Vice President Kamala Harris to reduce the number of unaccompanied minors and adult asylum seekers. She is also tasked with leading the negotiations with Mexico, Honduras, Guatemala and El Salvador. 

​In June 2021, Vice President Harris visited Guatemala and Mexico in an attempt to address the root causes of migration from Central America to the United States. During her visit, in a joint press conference with Guatemalan President Alejandro Giammattei, Harris issued an appeal to potential migrants, stating "I want to be clear to folks in the region who are thinking about making that dangerous trek to the United States-Mexico border: Do not come. Do not come."
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