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Tourism
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Tourism is travel for pleasure or business, and the commercial activity of providing and supporting such travel.
The World Tourism Organization defines tourism more generally, in terms which go "beyond the common perception of tourism as being limited to holiday activity only", as people "travelling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure and not less than 24 hours, business and other purposes".
Tourism can be domestic (within the traveller's own country) or international, and international tourism has both incoming and outgoing implications on a country's balance of payments.
Tourism numbers declined as a result of a strong economic slowdown (the late-2000s recession) between the second half of 2008 and the end of 2009, and in consequence of the outbreak of the 2009 H1N1 influenza virus, but slowly recovered until the COVID-19 pandemic put an abrupt end to the growth.
The United Nations World Tourism Organization estimated that global international tourist arrivals might decrease by 58% to 78% in 2020, leading to a potential loss of US$0.9–1.2 trillion in international tourism receipts.
Globally, international tourism receipts (the travel item in the balance of payments) grew to US$1.03 trillion (€740 billion) in 2005, corresponding to an increase in real terms of 3.8% from 2010. International tourist arrivals surpassed the milestone of 1 billion tourists globally for the first time in 2012.
Emerging source markets such as China, Russia, and Brazil had significantly increased their spending over the previous decade.
Global tourism accounts for c. 8% of global greenhouse-gas emissions. Emissions as well as other significant environmental and social impacts are not always beneficial to local communities and their economies. For this reason, many tourist development organizations have begun to focus on sustainable tourism to mitigate the negative effects caused by the growing impact of tourism.
The United Nations World Tourism Organization emphasized these practices by promoting tourism as part of the Sustainable Development Goals, through programs like the International Year for Sustainable Tourism for Development in 2017, and programs like Tourism for SDGs focusing on how SDG 8, SDG 12 and SDG 14 implicate tourism in creating a sustainable economy.
Tourism has reached new dimensions with the emerging industry of space tourism as well as the current industry with cruise ships, there are many different ways of tourism. Another potential new tourism industry is virtual tourism.
Etymology
The English-language word tourist was used in 1772 and tourism in 1811.These words derive from the word tour, which comes from Old English turian, from Old French torner, from Latin tornare - "to turn on a lathe", which is itself from Ancient Greek tornos (τόρνος) - "lathe".
Definitions:
In 1936, the League of Nations defined a foreign tourist as "someone traveling abroad for at least twenty-four hours". Its successor, the United Nations, amended this definition in 1945, by including a maximum stay of six months.
In 1941, Hunziker and Kraft defined tourism as "the sum of the phenomena and relationships arising from the travel and stay of non-residents, insofar as they do not lead to permanent residence and are not connected with any earning activity." In 1976, the Tourism Society of England's definition was: "Tourism is the temporary, short-term movement of people to destinations outside the places where they normally live and work and their activities during the stay at each destination.
It includes movements for all purposes." In 1981, the International Association of Scientific Experts in Tourism defined tourism in terms of particular activities chosen and undertaken outside the home.
In 1994, the United Nations identified three forms of tourism in its Recommendations on Tourism Statistics:
Other groupings derived from the above grouping:
The terms tourism and travel are sometimes used interchangeably. In this context, travel has a similar definition to tourism but implies a more purposeful journey. The terms tourism and tourist are sometimes used pejoratively, to imply a shallow interest in the cultures or locations visited.
By contrast, traveller is often used as a sign of distinction. The sociology of tourism has studied the cultural values underpinning these distinctions and their implications for class relations.
Tourism products:
According to the World Tourism Organization, a tourism product is:
"a combination of tangible and intangible elements, such as natural, cultural, and man-made resources, attractions, facilities, services and activities around a specific center of interest which represents the core of the destination marketing mix and creates an overall visitor experience including emotional aspects for the potential customers. A tourism product is priced and sold through distribution channels and it has a life-cycle".
Tourism product covers a wide variety of services including:
International tourism
International tourism is tourism that crosses national borders. Globalisation has made tourism a popular global leisure activity. The World Tourism Organization defines tourists as people "traveling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business and other purposes".
The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that up to 500,000 people are in flight at any one time.
In 2010, international tourism reached US$919B, growing 6.5% over 2009, corresponding to an increase in real terms of 4.7%. In 2010, there were over 940 million international tourist arrivals worldwide. By 2016 that number had risen to 1,235 million, producing 1,220 billion USD in destination spending.
The COVID-19 crisis had significant negative effects on international tourism significantly slowing the overall increasing trend.
International tourism has significant impacts on the environment, exacerbated in part by the problems created by air travel but also by other issues, including wealthy tourists bringing lifestyles that stress local infrastructure, water and trash systems among others.
Basis:
The economic foundations of tourism are essentially the cultural assets, the cultural property and the nature of the travel location. The World Heritage Sites are particularly worth mentioning today because they are real tourism magnets. But even a country's current or former form of government can be decisive for tourism.
For example, the fascination of the British royal family brings millions of tourists to Great Britain every year and thus the economy is around £550 million a year. The Habsburg family can be mentioned in Central Europe. According to estimates, the Habsburg brand should generate tourism sales of 60 million euros per year for Vienna alone.
Tourism typically requires the tourist to feel engaged in a genuine experience of the location they are visiting. According to Dean MacCannell, tourism requires that the tourist can view the toured area as both authentic and different from their own lived experience.
By viewing the "exotic," tourists learn what they themselves are not: that is, they are "un-exotic," or normal.
According to MacCannell, all modern tourism experiences the "authentic" and "exotic" as "developmentally inferior" to the modern—that is, to the lived experience of the tourist.
History:
Ancient:
See also: Travel literature
Travel outside a person's local area for leisure was largely confined to wealthy classes, who at times travelled to distant parts of the world, to see great buildings and works of art, learn new languages, experience new cultures, enjoy pristine nature and to taste different cuisines.
As early as Shulgi, however, kings praised themselves for protecting roads and building way stations for travellers. Travelling for pleasure can be seen in Egypt as early on as 1500 BC.
Ancient Roman tourists during the Republic would visit spas and coastal resorts such as Baiae. They were popular among the rich. The Roman upper class used to spend their free time on land or at sea and travelled to their villa urbana or villa maritima. Numerous villas were located in Campania, around Rome and in the northern part of the Adriatic as in Barcola near Trieste.
Pausanias wrote his Description of Greece in the second century AD. In ancient China, nobles sometimes made a point of visiting Mount Tai and, on occasion, all five Sacred Mountains.
Medieval:
By the post-classical era, many religions, including Christianity, Buddhism, and Islam had developed traditions of pilgrimage. The Canterbury Tales (c. 1390s), which uses a pilgrimage as a framing device, remains a classic of English literature, and Journey to the West (c. 1592), which holds a seminal place in Chinese literature, has a Buddhist pilgrimage at the center of its narrative.
In medieval Italy, Petrarch wrote an allegorical account of his 1336 ascent of Mont Ventoux that praised the act of travelling and criticized frigida incuriositas (a 'cold lack of curiosity'); this account is regarded as one of the first known instances of travel being undertaken for its own sake. The Burgundian poet Michault Taillevent later composed his own horrified recollections of a 1430 trip through the Jura Mountains.
In China, 'travel record literature' (遊記文學; yóujì wénxué) became popular during the Song Dynasty (960–1279). Travel writers such as Fan Chengda (1126–1193) and Xu Xiake (1587–1641) incorporated a wealth of geographical and topographical information into their writing, while the 'daytrip essay' Record of Stone Bell Mountain by the noted poet and statesman Su Shi (1037–1101) presented a philosophical and moral argument as its central purpose.
Grand Tour:
See also: Grand Tour
Modern tourism can be traced to what was known as the Grand Tour, which was a traditional trip around Europe (especially Germany and Italy), undertaken by mainly upper-class European young men of means, mainly from Western and Northern European countries.
In 1624, the young Prince of Poland, Ladislaus Sigismund Vasa, the eldest son of Sigismund III, embarked on a journey across Europe, as was in custom among Polish nobility. He travelled through territories of today's Germany, Belgium, the Netherlands, where he admired the siege of Breda by Spanish forces, France, Switzerland to Italy, Austria, and the Czech Republic. It was an educational journey and one of the outcomes was introduction of Italian opera in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.
The custom flourished from about 1660 until the advent of large-scale rail transit in the 1840s and generally followed a standard itinerary. It was an educational opportunity and rite of passage.
Though primarily associated with the British nobility and wealthy landed gentry, similar trips were made by wealthy young men of Protestant Northern European nations on the Continent, and from the second half of the 18th century some South American, US, and other overseas youth joined in.
The tradition was extended to include more of the middle class after rail and steamship travel made the journey easier, and Thomas Cook made the "Cook's Tour" a byword.
The Grand Tour became a real status symbol for upper-class students in the 18th and 19th centuries. In this period, Johann Joachim Winckelmann's theories about the supremacy of classic culture became very popular and appreciated in the European academic world.
Artists, writers, and travellers (such as Goethe) affirmed the supremacy of classic art of which Italy, France, and Greece provide excellent examples. For these reasons, the Grand Tour's main destinations were to those centers, where upper-class students could find rare examples of classic art and history.
The New York Times recently described the Grand Tour in this way:
Three hundred years ago, wealthy young Englishmen began taking a post-Oxbridge trek through France and Italy in search of art, culture and the roots of Western civilization. With nearly unlimited funds, aristocratic connections and months (or years) to roam, they commissioned paintings, perfected their language skills and mingled with the upper crust of the Continent.
— Gross, Matt., Lessons From the Frugal Grand Tour." New York Times 5 September 2008.
The primary value of the Grand Tour, it was believed, laid in the exposure both to the cultural legacy of classical antiquity and the Renaissance, and to the aristocratic and fashionably polite society of the European continent.
Emergence of leisure travel:
Leisure travel was associated with the Industrial Revolution in the United Kingdom – the first European country to promote leisure time to the increasing industrial population. Initially, this applied to the owners of the machinery of production, the economic oligarchy, factory owners and traders. These comprised the new middle class. Cox & Kings was the first official travel company to be formed in 1758.
The British origin of this new industry is reflected in many place names. In Nice, France, one of the first and best-established holiday resorts on the French Riviera, the long esplanade along the seafront is known to this day as the Promenade des Anglais; in many other historic resorts in continental Europe, old, well-established palace hotels have names like the Hotel Bristol, Hotel Carlton, or Hotel Majestic – reflecting the dominance of English customers.
A pioneer of the travel agency business, Thomas Cook's idea to offer excursions came to him while waiting for the stagecoach on the London Road at Kibworth. With the opening of the extended Midland Counties Railway, he arranged to take a group of 540 temperance campaigners from Leicester Campbell Street station to a rally in Loughborough, eleven miles (18 km) away.
On 5 July 1841, Thomas Cook arranged for the rail company to charge one shilling per person; this included rail tickets and food for the journey. Cook was paid a share of the fares charged to the passengers, as the railway tickets, being legal contracts between company and passenger, could not have been issued at his own price.
This was the first privately chartered excursion train to be advertised to the general public; Cook himself acknowledged that there had been previous, unadvertised, private excursion trains. During the following three summers he planned and conducted outings for temperance societies and Sunday school children.
In 1844, the Midland Counties Railway Company agreed to make a permanent arrangement with him, provided he found the passengers. This success led him to start his own business running rail excursions for pleasure, taking a percentage of the railway fares.
In 1855, he planned his first excursion abroad, when he took a group from Leicester to Calais to coincide with the Paris Exhibition. The following year he started his "grand circular tours" of Europe. During the 1860s he took parties to Switzerland, Italy, Egypt, and the United States.
Cook established "inclusive independent travel", whereby the traveller went independently but his agency charged for travel, food, and accommodation for a fixed period over any chosen route. Such was his success that the Scottish railway companies withdrew their support between 1862 and 1863 to try the excursion business for themselves.
Economic significance of tourism:
The tourism industry, as part of the service sector, has become an important source of income for many regions and even for entire countries. The Manila Declaration on World Tourism of 1980 recognized its importance as "an activity essential to the life of nations because of its direct effects on the social, cultural, educational, and economic sectors of national societies, and on their international relations."
Tourism brings large amounts of income into a local economy in the form of payment for goods and services needed by tourists, accounting as of 2011 for 30% of the world's trade in services, and, as an invisible export, for 6% of overall exports of goods and services.
It also generates opportunities for employment in the service sector of the economy associated with tourism. It is also claimed that travel broadens the mind.
The hospitality industries which benefit from tourism include tourist-related services including:
This is in addition to goods bought by tourists, including souvenirs.
On the flip-side, tourism can degrade people and sour relationships between host and guest. Tourism frequently also puts additional pressure on the local environment.
The economic foundations of tourism are essentially the cultural assets, the cultural property and the nature of the travel location. The World Heritage Sites are particularly worth mentioning today because they are real tourism magnets. But even a country's current or former form of government can be decisive for tourism.
For example, the fascination of the British royal family brings millions of tourists to Great Britain every year and thus the economy around £550 million a year. The Habsburg family can be mentioned in Central Europe. According to estimates, the Habsburg brand should generate tourism sales of 60 million euros per year for Vienna alone. The tourist principle "Habsburg sells" applies.
Tourism, cultural heritage and UNESCO:
Cultural and natural heritage are in many cases the absolute basis for worldwide tourism. Cultural tourism is one of the megatrends that is reflected in massive numbers of overnight stays and sales. As UNESCO is increasingly observing, the cultural heritage is needed for tourism, but also endangered by it.
The "ICOMOS - International Cultural Tourism Charter" from 1999 is already dealing with all of these problems. As a result of the tourist hazard, for example, the Lascaux cave was rebuilt for tourists.
Overtourism is an important buzzword in this area. Furthermore, the focus of UNESCO in war zones is to ensure the protection of cultural heritage in order to maintain this future important economic basis for the local population.
And there is intensive cooperation between UNESCO, the United Nations, the United Nations peacekeeping and Blue Shield International. There are extensive international and national considerations, studies and programs to protect cultural assets from the effects of tourism and those from war.
In particular, it is also about training civilian and military personnel. But the involvement of the locals is particularly important. The founding president of Blue Shield International Karl von Habsburg summed it up with the words: "Without the local community and without the local participants, that would be completely impossible'.
Cruise shipping:
Cruising is a popular form of water tourism. Leisure cruise ships were introduced by the Peninsular & Oriental Steam Navigation Company (P&O) in 1844, sailing from Southampton to destinations such as Gibraltar, Malta and Athens.
In 1891, German businessman Albert Ballin sailed the ship Augusta Victoria from Hamburg into the Mediterranean Sea. 29 June 1900 saw the launching of the first purpose-built cruise ship was Prinzessin Victoria Luise, built in Hamburg for the Hamburg America Line.
Modern day tourism:
Many leisure-oriented tourists travel to seaside resorts on their nearest coast or further afield. Coastal areas in the tropics are popular in both summer and winter.
Mass tourism:
Academics have defined mass tourism as travel by groups on pre-scheduled tours, usually under the organization of tourism professionals. This form of tourism developed during the second half of the 19th century in the United Kingdom and was pioneered by Thomas Cook.
Cook took advantage of Europe's rapidly expanding railway network and established a company that offered affordable day trip excursions to the masses, in addition to longer holidays to Continental Europe, India, Asia and the Western Hemisphere which attracted wealthier customers. By the 1890s over 20,000 tourists per year used Thomas Cook & Son.
The relationship between tourism companies, transportation operators and hotels is a central feature of mass tourism. Cook was able to offer prices that were below the publicly advertised price because his company purchased large numbers of tickets from railroads. One contemporary form of mass tourism, package tourism, still incorporates the partnership between these three groups.
Travel developed during the early 20th century and was facilitated by the development of the automobiles and later by airplanes. Improvements in transport allowed many people to travel quickly to places of leisure interest so that more people could begin to enjoy the benefits of leisure time.
In Continental Europe, early seaside resorts included:
In the United States, the first seaside resorts in the European style were at Atlantic City, New Jersey and Long Island, New York.
By the mid-20th century, the Mediterranean Coast became the principal mass tourism destination. The 1960s and 1970s saw mass tourism play a major role in the Spanish economic "miracle".
In the 1960s and 1970s, scientists discussed negative socio-cultural impacts of tourism on host communities. Since the 1980s the positive aspects of tourism began to be recognized as well.
Niche tourism:
Niche tourism refers to the numerous specialty forms of tourism that have emerged over the years, each with its own adjective. Many of these terms have come into common use by the tourism industry and academics. Others are emerging concepts that may or may not gain popular usage. Examples of the more common niche tourism markets are:
Other terms used for niche or specialty travel forms include the term "destination" in the descriptions, such as destination weddings, and terms such as location vacation.
Winter tourism:
See also: List of ski areas and resorts and Winter sport
St. Moritz, Switzerland became the cradle of the developing winter tourism in the 1860s: hotel manager Johannes Badrutt invited some summer guests from England to return in the winter to see the snowy landscape, thereby inaugurating a popular trend.
It was, however, only in the 1970s when winter tourism took over the lead from summer tourism in many of the Swiss ski resorts. Even in winter, up to one third of all guests (depending on the location) consist of non-skiers.
Major ski resorts are located mostly in the various European countries (e.g.
Recent developments:
There has been an up-trend in tourism over the last few decades, especially in Europe, where international travel for short breaks is common. Tourists have a wide range of budgets and tastes, and a wide variety of resorts and hotels have developed to cater for them.
For example, some people prefer simple beach vacations, while others want more specialized holidays, quieter resorts, family-oriented holidays, or niche market-targeted destination hotels.
The developments in air transport infrastructure, such as jumbo jets, low-cost airlines, and more accessible airports have made many types of tourism more affordable. A major factor in the relatively low cost of air travel is the tax exemption for aviation fuels.
The WHO estimated in 2009 that there are around half a million people on board aircraft at any given time.
There have also been changes in lifestyle, for example, some retirement-age people sustain year-round tourism. This is facilitated by internet sales of tourist services. Some sites have now started to offer dynamic packaging, in which an inclusive price is quoted for a tailor-made package requested by the customer upon impulse.
There have been a few setbacks in tourism, such as the September 11 attacks and terrorist threats to tourist destinations, such as in Bali and several European cities.
Also, on 26 December 2004, a tsunami, caused by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, hit the Asian countries on the Indian Ocean, including the Maldives. Thousands of people died including many tourists. This, together with the vast clean-up operations, stopped or severely hampered tourism in the area for a time.
Individual low-price or even zero-price overnight stays have become more popular in the 2000s, especially with a strong growth in the hostel market and services like CouchSurfing and airbnb being established.
There has also been examples of jurisdictions wherein a significant portion of GDP is being spent on altering the primary sources of revenue towards tourism, as has occurred for instance in Dubai.
Sustainable tourism:
This section is an excerpt from Sustainable tourism.
Sustainable tourism is a concept that covers the complete tourism experience, including concern for economic, social and environmental issues as well as attention to improving tourists' experiences and addressing the needs of host communities.
Sustainable tourism should embrace concerns for environmental protection, social equity, and the quality of life, cultural diversity, and a dynamic, viable economy delivering jobs and prosperity for all.
It has its roots in sustainable development and there can be some confusion as to what "sustainable tourism" means. There is now broad consensus that tourism should be sustainable. In fact, all forms of tourism have the potential to be sustainable if planned, developed and managed properly.
Tourist development organizations are promoting sustainable tourism practices in order to mitigate negative effects caused by the growing impact of tourism, for example its environmental impacts.
The United Nations World Tourism Organization emphasized these practices by promoting sustainable tourism as part of the Sustainable Development Goals, through programs like the International Year for Sustainable Tourism for Development in 2017.
There is a direct link between sustainable tourism and several of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Tourism for SDGs focuses on how SDG 8 ("decent work and economic growth"), SDG 12 ("responsible consumption and production") and SDG 14 ("life below water") implicate tourism in creating a sustainable economy.
According to the World Travel & Tourism Travel, tourism constituted "10.3 percent to the global gross domestic product, with international tourist arrivals hitting 1.5 billion marks (a growth of 3.5 percent) in 2019" and generated $1.7 trillion export earnings yet, improvements are expected to be gained from suitable management aspects and including sustainable tourism as part of a broader sustainable development strategy.
Ecotourism:
Main article: Ecotourism
Ecotourism, also known as ecological tourism, is responsible travel to fragile, pristine, and usually protected areas that strives to be low-impact and (often) small-scale. It helps educate the traveller; provides funds for conservation; directly benefits the economic development and political empowerment of local communities, and fosters respect for different cultures and for human rights.
Take only memories and leave only footprints is a very common slogan in protected areas. Tourist destinations are shifting to low carbon emissions following the trend of visitors more focused in being environmentally responsible adopting a sustainable behavior.
Volunteer tourism:
Main article: Volunteer tourism
Volunteer tourism (or voluntourism) is growing as a largely Western phenomenon, with volunteers travelling to aid those less fortunate than themselves in order to counter global inequalities.
Wearing (2001) defines volunteer tourism as applying "to those tourists who, for various reasons, volunteer in an organised way to undertake holidays that might involve aiding or alleviating the material poverty of some groups in society". VSO was founded in the UK in 1958 and the US Peace Corps was subsequently founded in 1960. These were the first large scale voluntary sending organisations, initially arising to modernise less economically developed countries, which it was hoped would curb the influence of communism.
This form of tourism is largely praised for its more sustainable approach to travel, with tourists attempting to assimilate into local cultures, and avoiding the criticisms of consumptive and exploitative mass tourism.
However, increasingly, voluntourism is being criticised by scholars who suggest it may have negative effects as it begins to undermine local labour, and force unwilling host communities to adopt Western initiatives, while host communities without a strong heritage fail to retain volunteers who become dissatisfied with experiences and volunteer shortages persist.
Increasingly, organisations such as VSO have been concerned with community-centric volunteer programmes where power to control the future of the community is in the hands of local people.
Pro-poor tourism:
Pro-poor tourism, which seeks to help the poorest people in developing countries, has been receiving increasing attention by those involved in development; the issue has been addressed through small-scale projects in local communities and through attempts by Ministries of Tourism to attract large numbers of tourists.
Research by the Overseas Development Institute suggests that neither is the best way to encourage tourists' money to reach the poorest as only 25% or less (far less in some cases) ever reaches the poor; successful examples of money reaching the poor include mountain-climbing in Tanzania and cultural tourism in Luang Prabang, Laos.
There is also the possibility of pro-poor tourism principles being adopted in centre sites of regeneration in the developed world.
Recession tourism:
Recession tourism is a travel trend which evolved by way of the world economic crisis.
Recession tourism is defined by low-cost and high-value experiences taking place at once-popular generic retreats. Various recession tourism hotspots have seen business boom during the recession thanks to comparatively low costs of living and a slow world job market suggesting travellers are elongating trips where their money travels further. This concept is not widely used in tourism research. It is related to the short-lived phenomenon that is more widely known as staycation.
Medical tourism:
Main article: Medical tourism
When there is a significant price difference between countries for a given medical procedure, particularly in:
Educational tourism:
Educational tourism is developed because of the growing popularity of teaching and learning of knowledge and the enhancing of technical competency outside of the classroom environment.
Brent W. Ritchie, publisher of Managing Educational Tourism, created a study of a geographic subdivision to demonstrate how tourism educated high school students participating in foreign exchange programs over the last 15 years.
In educational tourism, the main focus of the tour or leisure activity includes visiting another country to learn about the culture, study tours, or to work and apply skills learned inside the classroom in a different environment, such as in the International Practicum Training Program.
In 2018, one impact was many exchange students traveled to America to assist students financially in order to maintain their secondary education.
Event tourism:
This type of tourism is focused on tourists coming into a region to either participate in an event or to see an organized event put on by the city/region.
This type of tourism can also fall under sustainable tourism as well and companies that create a sustainable event to attend open up a chance to not only the consumer but their workers to learn and develop from the experience.
Creating a sustainable atmosphere creates a chance to inform and encourage sustainable practices. An example of event tourism would be the music festival South by Southwest that is hosted in Austin, Texas annually. Every year people from all over the world flock to the city for one week to sit in on technology talks and see bands perform. People are drawn here to experience something that they are not able to experience in their hometown, which defines event tourism.
Creative tourism:
Creative tourism has existed as a form of cultural tourism, since the early beginnings of tourism itself. Its European roots date back to the time of the Grand Tour, which saw the sons of aristocratic families travelling for the purpose of mostly interactive, educational experiences.
More recently, creative tourism has been given its own name by Crispin Raymond and Greg Richards, who as members of the Association for Tourism and Leisure Education (ATLAS), have directed a number of projects for the European Commission, including cultural and crafts tourism, known as sustainable tourism.
They have defined "creative tourism" as tourism related to the active participation of travellers in the culture of the host community, through interactive workshops and informal learning experiences.
Meanwhile, the concept of creative tourism has been picked up by high-profile organizations such as UNESCO, who through the Creative Cities Network, have endorsed creative tourism as an engaged, authentic experience that promotes an active understanding of the specific cultural features of a place.
UNESCO wrote in one of its documents: "'Creative Tourism' involves more interaction, in which the visitor has an educational, emotional, social, and participative interaction with the place, its living culture, and the people who live there. They feel like a citizen."
Saying so, the tourist will have the opportunity to take part in workshops, classes and activities related to the culture of the destination.
More recently, creative tourism has gained popularity as a form of cultural tourism, drawing on active participation by travellers in the culture of the host communities they visit. Several countries offer examples of this type of tourism development, including:
The growing interest of tourists in this new way to discover a culture regards particularly the operators and branding managers, attentive to the possibility of attracting a quality tourism, highlighting the intangible heritage (craft workshops, cooking classes, etc.) and optimizing the use of existing infrastructure (for example, through the rent of halls and auditoriums).
Experiential tourism:
Experiential travel (or "immersion travel") is one of the major market trends in the modern tourism industry. It is an approach to travelling which focuses on experiencing a country, city or particular place by connecting to its history, people, food and culture.
The term "experiential travel" has been mentioned in publications since 1985, but it was not discovered as a meaningful market trend until much later.
Dark tourism:
Main article: Dark tourism
One emerging area of special interest has been identified by Lennon and Foley (2000 as "dark" tourism. This type of tourism involves visits to "dark" sites, such as battlegrounds, scenes of horrific crimes or acts of genocide, for example concentration camps.
Philip Stone argues that dark tourism is a way of imagining one's own death through the real death of others.
Erik H Cohen introduces the term "populo sites" to evidence the educational character of dark tourism. Popular sites transmit the story of victimized people to visitors. Based on a study at Yad Vashem, the Shoah (Holocaust) memorial museum in Jerusalem, a new term--in populo—is proposed to describe dark tourism sites at a spiritual and population center of the people to whom a tragedy befell.
Learning about the Shoah in Jerusalem offers an encounter with the subject which is different from visits to sites in Europe, but equally authentic. It is argued that a dichotomy between "authentic" sites at the location of a tragedy and "created" sites elsewhere is insufficient.
Participants' evaluations of seminars for European teachers at Yad Vashem indicate that the location is an important aspect of a meaningful encounter with the subject. Implications for other cases of dark tourism at in populo locations are discussed.
In this vein, Peter Tarlow defines dark tourism as the tendency to visit the scenes of tragedies or historically noteworthy deaths, which continue to impact our lives. This issue cannot be understood without the figure of trauma.
Victoria Mitchell et al. suggest that dark tourism seems to be a heterogeneous discipline.
There is a great dispersion of definitions, knowledge production and meanings revolving around the term. In fact, dark tourism practices vary in culture and time. Qualitative speaking, dark tourism experience is pretty different from leisure practices.
To fill the gap, the existent definitions should be catalogued in sub-categories to form an all-encompassing model that expands the current understanding of dark tourism.
In consonance with this, M. Apleni et al. argue dark tourism helps the industry not to be fragmented before the ongoing states of crises the activity often faces. They cite the case of terrorism which paves the way for the construction of a new dark site.
Dark tourism plays a leading role not only in enhancing destination resilience but also in helping communities to deal with traumatic experiences.
Social tourism:
Social tourism is making tourism available to poor people who otherwise could not afford to travel for their education or recreation. It includes youth hostels and low-priced holiday accommodation run by church and voluntary organisations, trade unions, or in Communist times publicly owned enterprises.
In May 1959, at the second Congress of Social Tourism in Austria, Walter Hunziker proposed the following definition: "Social tourism is a type of tourism practiced by low-income groups, and which is rendered possible and facilitated by entirely separate and therefore easily recognizable services".
Doom tourism:
Also known as "tourism of doom," or "last chance tourism", this emerging trend involves travelling to places that are environmentally or otherwise threatened (such as the ice caps of Mount Kilimanjaro, the melting glaciers of Patagonia, or the coral of the Great Barrier Reef) before it is too late.
Identified by travel trade magazine Travel Age West editor-in-chief Kenneth Shapiro in 2007 and later explored in The New York Times, this type of tourism is believed to be on the rise.
Some see the trend as related to sustainable tourism or ecotourism due to the fact that a number of these tourist destinations are considered threatened by environmental factors such as global warming, overpopulation or climate change.
Others worry that travel to many of these threatened locations increases an individual's carbon footprint and only hastens problems threatened locations are already facing.
Religious tourism:
Main article: Religious tourism
Religious tourism, in particular pilgrimage, can serve to strengthen faith and to demonstrate devotion. Religious tourists may seek destinations whose image encourages them to believe that they can strengthen the religious elements of their self-identity in a positive manner.
Given this, the perceived image of a destination may be positively influenced by whether it conforms to the requirements of their religious self-identity or not.
DNA tourism:
DNA tourism, also called "ancestry tourism" or "heritage travel", is tourism based on DNA testing. These tourists visit their remote relatives or places where their ancestors came from, or where their relatives reside, based on the results of DNA tests. DNA tourism became a growing trend in 2019.
Impacts:
Main article: Impacts of tourism
This section is an excerpt from Impacts of tourism.
Tourism impacts tourist destinations in both positive and negative ways, encompassing economic, socio-cultural, and environmental dimensions. The traditionally-described domains of tourism impacts are economic, socio-cultural, and environmental.
The economic effects of tourism encompass:
Sociocultural impacts are associated with interactions between people with differing cultural backgrounds, attitudes and behaviors, and relationships to material goods.
Environmental impacts can be categorized as direct effects including degradation of habitat, vegetation, air quality, bodies of water, the water table, wildlife, and changes in natural phenomena, and indirect effects, such as increased harvesting of natural resources to supply food, indirect air and water pollution (including from flights, transport and the manufacture of food and souvenirs for tourists).
Tourism also has positive and negative health outcomes for local people. The short-term negative impacts of tourism on residents' health are related to:
In addition, residents can experience anxiety and depression related to their risk perceptions about mortality rates, food insecurity, contact with infected tourists, etc., which can result in negative mental health outcomes.
At the same time, there are positive long-term impacts of tourism on residents' health and well-being outcomes through improving healthcare access positive emotions, novelty, and social interactions.
Growth:
The World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) forecasts that international tourism will continue growing at the average annual rate of 4%.
With the advent of e-commerce, tourism products have become prominent traded items on the internet. Tourism products and services have been made available through intermediaries, although tourism providers (hotels, airlines, etc.), including small-scale operators, can sell their services directly.
This has put pressure on intermediaries from both on-line and traditional shops.
It has been suggested there is a strong correlation between tourism expenditure per capita and the degree to which countries play in the global context. Not only as a result of the important economic contribution of the tourism industry, but also as an indicator of the degree of confidence with which global citizens leverage the resources of the globe for the benefit of their local economies.
This is why any projections of growth in tourism may serve as an indication of the relative influence that each country will exercise in the future.
Space tourism:
Main article: Space tourism
There has been a limited amount of orbital space tourism, with only the Russian Space Agency providing transport to date. A 2010 report into space tourism anticipated that it could become a billion-dollar market by 2030.
The space market has been around since 1979, however, there has been a limited amount of orbital space tourism, with only the Russian Space Agency providing transport on its Soyuz and the Chinese Shenzhou being the only two spacecrafts suitable for human travel .
In April 2001, Dennis Tito, a customer of the Russian Soyuz became the first tourist to visit space. In May 2011, Virgin Galactic launched its SpaceShipTwo plane that allows people to travel 2 hours space at the advertised price of $200,000 per seat.
A challenge that the commercial space tourism industry faces is to be able to have fundings from private investments needed to lower the cost of access to space in addition to being able to encourage both private and public sector support to increase capacity to allow commercial passengers.
With space tourism still being new concept, there are many factors that needs to be considered for the industry. From its actual demand to its risk factor to its liabilities and insurance issues, there are still a lot of research that needs to be conducted. A 2010 report into space tourism anticipated that the industry is expected to grow by 18% - 26% per year during 2020 to 2030.
Sports tourism:
Main article: Sports tourism
Since the late 1980s, sports tourism has become increasingly popular. Events such as rugby, Olympics, Commonwealth Games, Cricket World Cups and FIFA World Cups have enabled specialist travel companies to gain official ticket allocation and then sell them in packages that include flights, hotels and excursions.
Tourism security:
Tourism security is a subdiscipline of tourist studies that explores the factors that affect the ontological security of tourists. Risks are evaluated by their impact and nature. Tourism security includes methodologies, theories and techniques oriented to protect the organic image of tourist destinations.
Three academic waves are significant in tourism security: risk perception theory, disaster management, and post-disaster consumption.
Andrew Spencer & Peter Tarlow argue that tourism security is not an easy concept to define. It includes a set of sub-disciplines, and global risks different in nature which cause different effects in the tourism industry. The rise of tourism security and safety as a consolidated discipline coincides with the globalization and ultimate maturation of the industry worldwide.
Some threats include, for example, terrorist groups looking to destabilize governments affecting not only the local economies but killing foreign tourists to cause geopolitical tensions between delivery-country and receiving-tourist countries.
Today, island destinations are more affected by terrorism and other global risks than other continent destinations
Trends since 2000:
As a result of the late-2000s recession, international arrivals experienced a strong slowdown beginning in June 2008. Growth from 2007 to 2008 was only 3.7% during the first eight months of 2008. This slowdown on international tourism demand was also reflected in the air transport industry, with negative growth in September 2008 and a 3.3% growth in passenger traffic through September.
The hotel industry also reported a slowdown, with room occupancy declining. In 2009 worldwide tourism arrivals decreased by 3.8%. By the first quarter of 2009, real travel demand in the United States had fallen 6% over six quarters. While this is considerably milder than what occurred after the 9/11 attacks, the decline was at twice the rate, as real GDP has fallen.
However, evidence suggests that tourism as a global phenomenon shows no signs of substantially abating in the long term. Many people increasingly view vacations and travel as a necessity rather than a luxury, and this is reflected in tourist numbers recovering some 6.6% globally over 2009, with growth up to 8% in emerging economies.
Impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic:
Main article: Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on tourism
In 2020 the COVID-19 pandemic lock-downs, travel bans and a substantial reduction in passenger travel by air and sea contributed to a sharp decline in tourism activity.
The World Tourism Organization (WTO) reported a 70% decrease in international travel in 2020, where 165 of 217 worldwide destinations completely stopped international tourism by April 2020. Since every country imposes different travel restrictions, it makes traveling plans complicated and often too difficult to figure out, thus the willingness to travel for the general population decreases.
It is estimated that the United States lost 147 billion U.S. dollars in revenue from tourism between January and October 2020.
Spain had the next highest loss of revenue at around 46.7 billion U.S dollars, and countries in Africa collectively lost about 55 billion dollars during April and June 2020.
Negative impacts:
Nearly all sectors within the tourism industry were significantly impacted by the pandemic. Airlines had large losses of revenue due to reduced number of passenger with the International Air Transport Association (IATA) estimating airline revenue loss to be around $314 billion in 2020.
There was a 80% reduction of flights compared to the year 2019. In the food industry, many restaurants had to close which caused a ripple-effect to its related industries such as food production, farming, shipping, etc. As for the hotel industry, by June 2020 most of the hotels rooms were empty throughout the United States of America.
Positive impacts:
Virtual tourism is an emerging market that is popularized as an alternative solutions to in person tourism during the pandemic. Since many places like museums want to restrict crowdedness, virtual tours are set up to still provide visitors the experience without posing any health risks.
This creates new business models and provide new and inventive opportunities for the tourism industry. However, there is fear that virtual tourism cannot provide the same sensation for people if those activity were done in person.
See also:
The World Tourism Organization defines tourism more generally, in terms which go "beyond the common perception of tourism as being limited to holiday activity only", as people "travelling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure and not less than 24 hours, business and other purposes".
Tourism can be domestic (within the traveller's own country) or international, and international tourism has both incoming and outgoing implications on a country's balance of payments.
Tourism numbers declined as a result of a strong economic slowdown (the late-2000s recession) between the second half of 2008 and the end of 2009, and in consequence of the outbreak of the 2009 H1N1 influenza virus, but slowly recovered until the COVID-19 pandemic put an abrupt end to the growth.
The United Nations World Tourism Organization estimated that global international tourist arrivals might decrease by 58% to 78% in 2020, leading to a potential loss of US$0.9–1.2 trillion in international tourism receipts.
Globally, international tourism receipts (the travel item in the balance of payments) grew to US$1.03 trillion (€740 billion) in 2005, corresponding to an increase in real terms of 3.8% from 2010. International tourist arrivals surpassed the milestone of 1 billion tourists globally for the first time in 2012.
Emerging source markets such as China, Russia, and Brazil had significantly increased their spending over the previous decade.
Global tourism accounts for c. 8% of global greenhouse-gas emissions. Emissions as well as other significant environmental and social impacts are not always beneficial to local communities and their economies. For this reason, many tourist development organizations have begun to focus on sustainable tourism to mitigate the negative effects caused by the growing impact of tourism.
The United Nations World Tourism Organization emphasized these practices by promoting tourism as part of the Sustainable Development Goals, through programs like the International Year for Sustainable Tourism for Development in 2017, and programs like Tourism for SDGs focusing on how SDG 8, SDG 12 and SDG 14 implicate tourism in creating a sustainable economy.
Tourism has reached new dimensions with the emerging industry of space tourism as well as the current industry with cruise ships, there are many different ways of tourism. Another potential new tourism industry is virtual tourism.
Etymology
The English-language word tourist was used in 1772 and tourism in 1811.These words derive from the word tour, which comes from Old English turian, from Old French torner, from Latin tornare - "to turn on a lathe", which is itself from Ancient Greek tornos (τόρνος) - "lathe".
Definitions:
In 1936, the League of Nations defined a foreign tourist as "someone traveling abroad for at least twenty-four hours". Its successor, the United Nations, amended this definition in 1945, by including a maximum stay of six months.
In 1941, Hunziker and Kraft defined tourism as "the sum of the phenomena and relationships arising from the travel and stay of non-residents, insofar as they do not lead to permanent residence and are not connected with any earning activity." In 1976, the Tourism Society of England's definition was: "Tourism is the temporary, short-term movement of people to destinations outside the places where they normally live and work and their activities during the stay at each destination.
It includes movements for all purposes." In 1981, the International Association of Scientific Experts in Tourism defined tourism in terms of particular activities chosen and undertaken outside the home.
In 1994, the United Nations identified three forms of tourism in its Recommendations on Tourism Statistics:
- Domestic tourism, involving residents of the given country traveling only within this country
- Inbound tourism, involving non-residents traveling in the given country
- Outbound tourism, involving residents traveling in another country
Other groupings derived from the above grouping:
- National tourism, a combination of domestic and outbound tourism
- Regional tourism, a combination of domestic and inbound tourism
- International tourism, a combination of inbound and outbound tourism
The terms tourism and travel are sometimes used interchangeably. In this context, travel has a similar definition to tourism but implies a more purposeful journey. The terms tourism and tourist are sometimes used pejoratively, to imply a shallow interest in the cultures or locations visited.
By contrast, traveller is often used as a sign of distinction. The sociology of tourism has studied the cultural values underpinning these distinctions and their implications for class relations.
Tourism products:
According to the World Tourism Organization, a tourism product is:
"a combination of tangible and intangible elements, such as natural, cultural, and man-made resources, attractions, facilities, services and activities around a specific center of interest which represents the core of the destination marketing mix and creates an overall visitor experience including emotional aspects for the potential customers. A tourism product is priced and sold through distribution channels and it has a life-cycle".
Tourism product covers a wide variety of services including:
- Accommodation services from low-cost homestays to five-star hotels
- Hospitality services including food and beverage serving centers
- Health care services like massage
- All modes of transport, its booking and rental
- Travel agencies, guided tours and tourist guides
- Cultural services such as religious monuments, museums, and historical places
- Shopping
International tourism
International tourism is tourism that crosses national borders. Globalisation has made tourism a popular global leisure activity. The World Tourism Organization defines tourists as people "traveling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business and other purposes".
The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that up to 500,000 people are in flight at any one time.
In 2010, international tourism reached US$919B, growing 6.5% over 2009, corresponding to an increase in real terms of 4.7%. In 2010, there were over 940 million international tourist arrivals worldwide. By 2016 that number had risen to 1,235 million, producing 1,220 billion USD in destination spending.
The COVID-19 crisis had significant negative effects on international tourism significantly slowing the overall increasing trend.
International tourism has significant impacts on the environment, exacerbated in part by the problems created by air travel but also by other issues, including wealthy tourists bringing lifestyles that stress local infrastructure, water and trash systems among others.
Basis:
The economic foundations of tourism are essentially the cultural assets, the cultural property and the nature of the travel location. The World Heritage Sites are particularly worth mentioning today because they are real tourism magnets. But even a country's current or former form of government can be decisive for tourism.
For example, the fascination of the British royal family brings millions of tourists to Great Britain every year and thus the economy is around £550 million a year. The Habsburg family can be mentioned in Central Europe. According to estimates, the Habsburg brand should generate tourism sales of 60 million euros per year for Vienna alone.
Tourism typically requires the tourist to feel engaged in a genuine experience of the location they are visiting. According to Dean MacCannell, tourism requires that the tourist can view the toured area as both authentic and different from their own lived experience.
By viewing the "exotic," tourists learn what they themselves are not: that is, they are "un-exotic," or normal.
According to MacCannell, all modern tourism experiences the "authentic" and "exotic" as "developmentally inferior" to the modern—that is, to the lived experience of the tourist.
History:
Ancient:
See also: Travel literature
Travel outside a person's local area for leisure was largely confined to wealthy classes, who at times travelled to distant parts of the world, to see great buildings and works of art, learn new languages, experience new cultures, enjoy pristine nature and to taste different cuisines.
As early as Shulgi, however, kings praised themselves for protecting roads and building way stations for travellers. Travelling for pleasure can be seen in Egypt as early on as 1500 BC.
Ancient Roman tourists during the Republic would visit spas and coastal resorts such as Baiae. They were popular among the rich. The Roman upper class used to spend their free time on land or at sea and travelled to their villa urbana or villa maritima. Numerous villas were located in Campania, around Rome and in the northern part of the Adriatic as in Barcola near Trieste.
Pausanias wrote his Description of Greece in the second century AD. In ancient China, nobles sometimes made a point of visiting Mount Tai and, on occasion, all five Sacred Mountains.
Medieval:
By the post-classical era, many religions, including Christianity, Buddhism, and Islam had developed traditions of pilgrimage. The Canterbury Tales (c. 1390s), which uses a pilgrimage as a framing device, remains a classic of English literature, and Journey to the West (c. 1592), which holds a seminal place in Chinese literature, has a Buddhist pilgrimage at the center of its narrative.
In medieval Italy, Petrarch wrote an allegorical account of his 1336 ascent of Mont Ventoux that praised the act of travelling and criticized frigida incuriositas (a 'cold lack of curiosity'); this account is regarded as one of the first known instances of travel being undertaken for its own sake. The Burgundian poet Michault Taillevent later composed his own horrified recollections of a 1430 trip through the Jura Mountains.
In China, 'travel record literature' (遊記文學; yóujì wénxué) became popular during the Song Dynasty (960–1279). Travel writers such as Fan Chengda (1126–1193) and Xu Xiake (1587–1641) incorporated a wealth of geographical and topographical information into their writing, while the 'daytrip essay' Record of Stone Bell Mountain by the noted poet and statesman Su Shi (1037–1101) presented a philosophical and moral argument as its central purpose.
Grand Tour:
See also: Grand Tour
Modern tourism can be traced to what was known as the Grand Tour, which was a traditional trip around Europe (especially Germany and Italy), undertaken by mainly upper-class European young men of means, mainly from Western and Northern European countries.
In 1624, the young Prince of Poland, Ladislaus Sigismund Vasa, the eldest son of Sigismund III, embarked on a journey across Europe, as was in custom among Polish nobility. He travelled through territories of today's Germany, Belgium, the Netherlands, where he admired the siege of Breda by Spanish forces, France, Switzerland to Italy, Austria, and the Czech Republic. It was an educational journey and one of the outcomes was introduction of Italian opera in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.
The custom flourished from about 1660 until the advent of large-scale rail transit in the 1840s and generally followed a standard itinerary. It was an educational opportunity and rite of passage.
Though primarily associated with the British nobility and wealthy landed gentry, similar trips were made by wealthy young men of Protestant Northern European nations on the Continent, and from the second half of the 18th century some South American, US, and other overseas youth joined in.
The tradition was extended to include more of the middle class after rail and steamship travel made the journey easier, and Thomas Cook made the "Cook's Tour" a byword.
The Grand Tour became a real status symbol for upper-class students in the 18th and 19th centuries. In this period, Johann Joachim Winckelmann's theories about the supremacy of classic culture became very popular and appreciated in the European academic world.
Artists, writers, and travellers (such as Goethe) affirmed the supremacy of classic art of which Italy, France, and Greece provide excellent examples. For these reasons, the Grand Tour's main destinations were to those centers, where upper-class students could find rare examples of classic art and history.
The New York Times recently described the Grand Tour in this way:
Three hundred years ago, wealthy young Englishmen began taking a post-Oxbridge trek through France and Italy in search of art, culture and the roots of Western civilization. With nearly unlimited funds, aristocratic connections and months (or years) to roam, they commissioned paintings, perfected their language skills and mingled with the upper crust of the Continent.
— Gross, Matt., Lessons From the Frugal Grand Tour." New York Times 5 September 2008.
The primary value of the Grand Tour, it was believed, laid in the exposure both to the cultural legacy of classical antiquity and the Renaissance, and to the aristocratic and fashionably polite society of the European continent.
Emergence of leisure travel:
Leisure travel was associated with the Industrial Revolution in the United Kingdom – the first European country to promote leisure time to the increasing industrial population. Initially, this applied to the owners of the machinery of production, the economic oligarchy, factory owners and traders. These comprised the new middle class. Cox & Kings was the first official travel company to be formed in 1758.
The British origin of this new industry is reflected in many place names. In Nice, France, one of the first and best-established holiday resorts on the French Riviera, the long esplanade along the seafront is known to this day as the Promenade des Anglais; in many other historic resorts in continental Europe, old, well-established palace hotels have names like the Hotel Bristol, Hotel Carlton, or Hotel Majestic – reflecting the dominance of English customers.
A pioneer of the travel agency business, Thomas Cook's idea to offer excursions came to him while waiting for the stagecoach on the London Road at Kibworth. With the opening of the extended Midland Counties Railway, he arranged to take a group of 540 temperance campaigners from Leicester Campbell Street station to a rally in Loughborough, eleven miles (18 km) away.
On 5 July 1841, Thomas Cook arranged for the rail company to charge one shilling per person; this included rail tickets and food for the journey. Cook was paid a share of the fares charged to the passengers, as the railway tickets, being legal contracts between company and passenger, could not have been issued at his own price.
This was the first privately chartered excursion train to be advertised to the general public; Cook himself acknowledged that there had been previous, unadvertised, private excursion trains. During the following three summers he planned and conducted outings for temperance societies and Sunday school children.
In 1844, the Midland Counties Railway Company agreed to make a permanent arrangement with him, provided he found the passengers. This success led him to start his own business running rail excursions for pleasure, taking a percentage of the railway fares.
In 1855, he planned his first excursion abroad, when he took a group from Leicester to Calais to coincide with the Paris Exhibition. The following year he started his "grand circular tours" of Europe. During the 1860s he took parties to Switzerland, Italy, Egypt, and the United States.
Cook established "inclusive independent travel", whereby the traveller went independently but his agency charged for travel, food, and accommodation for a fixed period over any chosen route. Such was his success that the Scottish railway companies withdrew their support between 1862 and 1863 to try the excursion business for themselves.
Economic significance of tourism:
The tourism industry, as part of the service sector, has become an important source of income for many regions and even for entire countries. The Manila Declaration on World Tourism of 1980 recognized its importance as "an activity essential to the life of nations because of its direct effects on the social, cultural, educational, and economic sectors of national societies, and on their international relations."
Tourism brings large amounts of income into a local economy in the form of payment for goods and services needed by tourists, accounting as of 2011 for 30% of the world's trade in services, and, as an invisible export, for 6% of overall exports of goods and services.
It also generates opportunities for employment in the service sector of the economy associated with tourism. It is also claimed that travel broadens the mind.
The hospitality industries which benefit from tourism include tourist-related services including:
- airlines,
- cruise ships,
- transits,
- trains
- and taxicabs;
- lodging
- and entertainment venues
- such as amusement parks,
- restaurants,
- casinos,
- festivals,
- shopping malls,
- music venues,
- and theatres
This is in addition to goods bought by tourists, including souvenirs.
On the flip-side, tourism can degrade people and sour relationships between host and guest. Tourism frequently also puts additional pressure on the local environment.
The economic foundations of tourism are essentially the cultural assets, the cultural property and the nature of the travel location. The World Heritage Sites are particularly worth mentioning today because they are real tourism magnets. But even a country's current or former form of government can be decisive for tourism.
For example, the fascination of the British royal family brings millions of tourists to Great Britain every year and thus the economy around £550 million a year. The Habsburg family can be mentioned in Central Europe. According to estimates, the Habsburg brand should generate tourism sales of 60 million euros per year for Vienna alone. The tourist principle "Habsburg sells" applies.
Tourism, cultural heritage and UNESCO:
Cultural and natural heritage are in many cases the absolute basis for worldwide tourism. Cultural tourism is one of the megatrends that is reflected in massive numbers of overnight stays and sales. As UNESCO is increasingly observing, the cultural heritage is needed for tourism, but also endangered by it.
The "ICOMOS - International Cultural Tourism Charter" from 1999 is already dealing with all of these problems. As a result of the tourist hazard, for example, the Lascaux cave was rebuilt for tourists.
Overtourism is an important buzzword in this area. Furthermore, the focus of UNESCO in war zones is to ensure the protection of cultural heritage in order to maintain this future important economic basis for the local population.
And there is intensive cooperation between UNESCO, the United Nations, the United Nations peacekeeping and Blue Shield International. There are extensive international and national considerations, studies and programs to protect cultural assets from the effects of tourism and those from war.
In particular, it is also about training civilian and military personnel. But the involvement of the locals is particularly important. The founding president of Blue Shield International Karl von Habsburg summed it up with the words: "Without the local community and without the local participants, that would be completely impossible'.
Cruise shipping:
Cruising is a popular form of water tourism. Leisure cruise ships were introduced by the Peninsular & Oriental Steam Navigation Company (P&O) in 1844, sailing from Southampton to destinations such as Gibraltar, Malta and Athens.
In 1891, German businessman Albert Ballin sailed the ship Augusta Victoria from Hamburg into the Mediterranean Sea. 29 June 1900 saw the launching of the first purpose-built cruise ship was Prinzessin Victoria Luise, built in Hamburg for the Hamburg America Line.
Modern day tourism:
Many leisure-oriented tourists travel to seaside resorts on their nearest coast or further afield. Coastal areas in the tropics are popular in both summer and winter.
Mass tourism:
Academics have defined mass tourism as travel by groups on pre-scheduled tours, usually under the organization of tourism professionals. This form of tourism developed during the second half of the 19th century in the United Kingdom and was pioneered by Thomas Cook.
Cook took advantage of Europe's rapidly expanding railway network and established a company that offered affordable day trip excursions to the masses, in addition to longer holidays to Continental Europe, India, Asia and the Western Hemisphere which attracted wealthier customers. By the 1890s over 20,000 tourists per year used Thomas Cook & Son.
The relationship between tourism companies, transportation operators and hotels is a central feature of mass tourism. Cook was able to offer prices that were below the publicly advertised price because his company purchased large numbers of tickets from railroads. One contemporary form of mass tourism, package tourism, still incorporates the partnership between these three groups.
Travel developed during the early 20th century and was facilitated by the development of the automobiles and later by airplanes. Improvements in transport allowed many people to travel quickly to places of leisure interest so that more people could begin to enjoy the benefits of leisure time.
In Continental Europe, early seaside resorts included:
- Heiligendamm, founded in 1793 at the Baltic Sea, being the first seaside resort;
- Ostend, popularised by the people of Brussels;
- Boulogne-sur-Mer and Deauville for the Parisians;
- Taormina in Sicily.
In the United States, the first seaside resorts in the European style were at Atlantic City, New Jersey and Long Island, New York.
By the mid-20th century, the Mediterranean Coast became the principal mass tourism destination. The 1960s and 1970s saw mass tourism play a major role in the Spanish economic "miracle".
In the 1960s and 1970s, scientists discussed negative socio-cultural impacts of tourism on host communities. Since the 1980s the positive aspects of tourism began to be recognized as well.
Niche tourism:
- For a more comprehensive list, see List of adjectival tourisms.
Niche tourism refers to the numerous specialty forms of tourism that have emerged over the years, each with its own adjective. Many of these terms have come into common use by the tourism industry and academics. Others are emerging concepts that may or may not gain popular usage. Examples of the more common niche tourism markets are:
- Agritourism
- Birth tourism
- Coastal island tourism
- Culinary tourism
- Cultural tourism
- Dark tourism (also called "black tourism" or "grief tourism")
- Eco tourism
- Extreme tourism
- Film tourism
- Geotourism
- Heritage tourism
- LGBT tourism
- Medical tourism
- Nautical tourism
- Pop-culture tourism
- Religious tourism
- Sex tourism
- Slum tourism
- Sports tourism
- Trains tourism (e.g., steam and model railways)
- Virtual tourism
- War tourism
- Wellness tourism
- Wildlife tourism
Other terms used for niche or specialty travel forms include the term "destination" in the descriptions, such as destination weddings, and terms such as location vacation.
Winter tourism:
See also: List of ski areas and resorts and Winter sport
St. Moritz, Switzerland became the cradle of the developing winter tourism in the 1860s: hotel manager Johannes Badrutt invited some summer guests from England to return in the winter to see the snowy landscape, thereby inaugurating a popular trend.
It was, however, only in the 1970s when winter tourism took over the lead from summer tourism in many of the Swiss ski resorts. Even in winter, up to one third of all guests (depending on the location) consist of non-skiers.
Major ski resorts are located mostly in the various European countries (e.g.
- Andorra,
- Austria,
- Bulgaria,
- Bosnia and Herzegovina,
- Croatia,
- Czech Republic,
- Cyprus,
- Finland,
- France,
- Germany,
- Greece,
- Iceland,
- Italy,
- Norway,
- Latvia,
- Lithuania,
- Poland,
- Romania,
- Serbia,
- Sweden,
- Slovakia,
- Slovenia,
- Spain,
- Switzerland,
- Turkey,
- Canada,
- the United States
- (e.g. Montana,
- Utah,
- Colorado,
- California,
- Wyoming,
- Vermont,
- New Hampshire,
- New York)
- Argentina,
- New Zealand,
- Japan,
- South Korea,
- Chile,
- and Lebanon.
Recent developments:
There has been an up-trend in tourism over the last few decades, especially in Europe, where international travel for short breaks is common. Tourists have a wide range of budgets and tastes, and a wide variety of resorts and hotels have developed to cater for them.
For example, some people prefer simple beach vacations, while others want more specialized holidays, quieter resorts, family-oriented holidays, or niche market-targeted destination hotels.
The developments in air transport infrastructure, such as jumbo jets, low-cost airlines, and more accessible airports have made many types of tourism more affordable. A major factor in the relatively low cost of air travel is the tax exemption for aviation fuels.
The WHO estimated in 2009 that there are around half a million people on board aircraft at any given time.
There have also been changes in lifestyle, for example, some retirement-age people sustain year-round tourism. This is facilitated by internet sales of tourist services. Some sites have now started to offer dynamic packaging, in which an inclusive price is quoted for a tailor-made package requested by the customer upon impulse.
There have been a few setbacks in tourism, such as the September 11 attacks and terrorist threats to tourist destinations, such as in Bali and several European cities.
Also, on 26 December 2004, a tsunami, caused by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, hit the Asian countries on the Indian Ocean, including the Maldives. Thousands of people died including many tourists. This, together with the vast clean-up operations, stopped or severely hampered tourism in the area for a time.
Individual low-price or even zero-price overnight stays have become more popular in the 2000s, especially with a strong growth in the hostel market and services like CouchSurfing and airbnb being established.
There has also been examples of jurisdictions wherein a significant portion of GDP is being spent on altering the primary sources of revenue towards tourism, as has occurred for instance in Dubai.
Sustainable tourism:
This section is an excerpt from Sustainable tourism.
Sustainable tourism is a concept that covers the complete tourism experience, including concern for economic, social and environmental issues as well as attention to improving tourists' experiences and addressing the needs of host communities.
Sustainable tourism should embrace concerns for environmental protection, social equity, and the quality of life, cultural diversity, and a dynamic, viable economy delivering jobs and prosperity for all.
It has its roots in sustainable development and there can be some confusion as to what "sustainable tourism" means. There is now broad consensus that tourism should be sustainable. In fact, all forms of tourism have the potential to be sustainable if planned, developed and managed properly.
Tourist development organizations are promoting sustainable tourism practices in order to mitigate negative effects caused by the growing impact of tourism, for example its environmental impacts.
The United Nations World Tourism Organization emphasized these practices by promoting sustainable tourism as part of the Sustainable Development Goals, through programs like the International Year for Sustainable Tourism for Development in 2017.
There is a direct link between sustainable tourism and several of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Tourism for SDGs focuses on how SDG 8 ("decent work and economic growth"), SDG 12 ("responsible consumption and production") and SDG 14 ("life below water") implicate tourism in creating a sustainable economy.
According to the World Travel & Tourism Travel, tourism constituted "10.3 percent to the global gross domestic product, with international tourist arrivals hitting 1.5 billion marks (a growth of 3.5 percent) in 2019" and generated $1.7 trillion export earnings yet, improvements are expected to be gained from suitable management aspects and including sustainable tourism as part of a broader sustainable development strategy.
Ecotourism:
Main article: Ecotourism
Ecotourism, also known as ecological tourism, is responsible travel to fragile, pristine, and usually protected areas that strives to be low-impact and (often) small-scale. It helps educate the traveller; provides funds for conservation; directly benefits the economic development and political empowerment of local communities, and fosters respect for different cultures and for human rights.
Take only memories and leave only footprints is a very common slogan in protected areas. Tourist destinations are shifting to low carbon emissions following the trend of visitors more focused in being environmentally responsible adopting a sustainable behavior.
Volunteer tourism:
Main article: Volunteer tourism
Volunteer tourism (or voluntourism) is growing as a largely Western phenomenon, with volunteers travelling to aid those less fortunate than themselves in order to counter global inequalities.
Wearing (2001) defines volunteer tourism as applying "to those tourists who, for various reasons, volunteer in an organised way to undertake holidays that might involve aiding or alleviating the material poverty of some groups in society". VSO was founded in the UK in 1958 and the US Peace Corps was subsequently founded in 1960. These were the first large scale voluntary sending organisations, initially arising to modernise less economically developed countries, which it was hoped would curb the influence of communism.
This form of tourism is largely praised for its more sustainable approach to travel, with tourists attempting to assimilate into local cultures, and avoiding the criticisms of consumptive and exploitative mass tourism.
However, increasingly, voluntourism is being criticised by scholars who suggest it may have negative effects as it begins to undermine local labour, and force unwilling host communities to adopt Western initiatives, while host communities without a strong heritage fail to retain volunteers who become dissatisfied with experiences and volunteer shortages persist.
Increasingly, organisations such as VSO have been concerned with community-centric volunteer programmes where power to control the future of the community is in the hands of local people.
Pro-poor tourism:
Pro-poor tourism, which seeks to help the poorest people in developing countries, has been receiving increasing attention by those involved in development; the issue has been addressed through small-scale projects in local communities and through attempts by Ministries of Tourism to attract large numbers of tourists.
Research by the Overseas Development Institute suggests that neither is the best way to encourage tourists' money to reach the poorest as only 25% or less (far less in some cases) ever reaches the poor; successful examples of money reaching the poor include mountain-climbing in Tanzania and cultural tourism in Luang Prabang, Laos.
There is also the possibility of pro-poor tourism principles being adopted in centre sites of regeneration in the developed world.
Recession tourism:
Recession tourism is a travel trend which evolved by way of the world economic crisis.
Recession tourism is defined by low-cost and high-value experiences taking place at once-popular generic retreats. Various recession tourism hotspots have seen business boom during the recession thanks to comparatively low costs of living and a slow world job market suggesting travellers are elongating trips where their money travels further. This concept is not widely used in tourism research. It is related to the short-lived phenomenon that is more widely known as staycation.
Medical tourism:
Main article: Medical tourism
When there is a significant price difference between countries for a given medical procedure, particularly in:
- Southeast Asia,
- India,
- Sri Lanka,
- Eastern Europe,
- Cuba
- and Canada
Educational tourism:
Educational tourism is developed because of the growing popularity of teaching and learning of knowledge and the enhancing of technical competency outside of the classroom environment.
Brent W. Ritchie, publisher of Managing Educational Tourism, created a study of a geographic subdivision to demonstrate how tourism educated high school students participating in foreign exchange programs over the last 15 years.
In educational tourism, the main focus of the tour or leisure activity includes visiting another country to learn about the culture, study tours, or to work and apply skills learned inside the classroom in a different environment, such as in the International Practicum Training Program.
In 2018, one impact was many exchange students traveled to America to assist students financially in order to maintain their secondary education.
Event tourism:
This type of tourism is focused on tourists coming into a region to either participate in an event or to see an organized event put on by the city/region.
This type of tourism can also fall under sustainable tourism as well and companies that create a sustainable event to attend open up a chance to not only the consumer but their workers to learn and develop from the experience.
Creating a sustainable atmosphere creates a chance to inform and encourage sustainable practices. An example of event tourism would be the music festival South by Southwest that is hosted in Austin, Texas annually. Every year people from all over the world flock to the city for one week to sit in on technology talks and see bands perform. People are drawn here to experience something that they are not able to experience in their hometown, which defines event tourism.
Creative tourism:
Creative tourism has existed as a form of cultural tourism, since the early beginnings of tourism itself. Its European roots date back to the time of the Grand Tour, which saw the sons of aristocratic families travelling for the purpose of mostly interactive, educational experiences.
More recently, creative tourism has been given its own name by Crispin Raymond and Greg Richards, who as members of the Association for Tourism and Leisure Education (ATLAS), have directed a number of projects for the European Commission, including cultural and crafts tourism, known as sustainable tourism.
They have defined "creative tourism" as tourism related to the active participation of travellers in the culture of the host community, through interactive workshops and informal learning experiences.
Meanwhile, the concept of creative tourism has been picked up by high-profile organizations such as UNESCO, who through the Creative Cities Network, have endorsed creative tourism as an engaged, authentic experience that promotes an active understanding of the specific cultural features of a place.
UNESCO wrote in one of its documents: "'Creative Tourism' involves more interaction, in which the visitor has an educational, emotional, social, and participative interaction with the place, its living culture, and the people who live there. They feel like a citizen."
Saying so, the tourist will have the opportunity to take part in workshops, classes and activities related to the culture of the destination.
More recently, creative tourism has gained popularity as a form of cultural tourism, drawing on active participation by travellers in the culture of the host communities they visit. Several countries offer examples of this type of tourism development, including:
- the United Kingdom,
- Austria,
- France,
- the Bahamas,
- Jamaica,
- Spain, Italy,
- New Zealand
- and South Korea.
The growing interest of tourists in this new way to discover a culture regards particularly the operators and branding managers, attentive to the possibility of attracting a quality tourism, highlighting the intangible heritage (craft workshops, cooking classes, etc.) and optimizing the use of existing infrastructure (for example, through the rent of halls and auditoriums).
Experiential tourism:
Experiential travel (or "immersion travel") is one of the major market trends in the modern tourism industry. It is an approach to travelling which focuses on experiencing a country, city or particular place by connecting to its history, people, food and culture.
The term "experiential travel" has been mentioned in publications since 1985, but it was not discovered as a meaningful market trend until much later.
Dark tourism:
Main article: Dark tourism
One emerging area of special interest has been identified by Lennon and Foley (2000 as "dark" tourism. This type of tourism involves visits to "dark" sites, such as battlegrounds, scenes of horrific crimes or acts of genocide, for example concentration camps.
Philip Stone argues that dark tourism is a way of imagining one's own death through the real death of others.
Erik H Cohen introduces the term "populo sites" to evidence the educational character of dark tourism. Popular sites transmit the story of victimized people to visitors. Based on a study at Yad Vashem, the Shoah (Holocaust) memorial museum in Jerusalem, a new term--in populo—is proposed to describe dark tourism sites at a spiritual and population center of the people to whom a tragedy befell.
Learning about the Shoah in Jerusalem offers an encounter with the subject which is different from visits to sites in Europe, but equally authentic. It is argued that a dichotomy between "authentic" sites at the location of a tragedy and "created" sites elsewhere is insufficient.
Participants' evaluations of seminars for European teachers at Yad Vashem indicate that the location is an important aspect of a meaningful encounter with the subject. Implications for other cases of dark tourism at in populo locations are discussed.
In this vein, Peter Tarlow defines dark tourism as the tendency to visit the scenes of tragedies or historically noteworthy deaths, which continue to impact our lives. This issue cannot be understood without the figure of trauma.
Victoria Mitchell et al. suggest that dark tourism seems to be a heterogeneous discipline.
There is a great dispersion of definitions, knowledge production and meanings revolving around the term. In fact, dark tourism practices vary in culture and time. Qualitative speaking, dark tourism experience is pretty different from leisure practices.
To fill the gap, the existent definitions should be catalogued in sub-categories to form an all-encompassing model that expands the current understanding of dark tourism.
In consonance with this, M. Apleni et al. argue dark tourism helps the industry not to be fragmented before the ongoing states of crises the activity often faces. They cite the case of terrorism which paves the way for the construction of a new dark site.
Dark tourism plays a leading role not only in enhancing destination resilience but also in helping communities to deal with traumatic experiences.
Social tourism:
Social tourism is making tourism available to poor people who otherwise could not afford to travel for their education or recreation. It includes youth hostels and low-priced holiday accommodation run by church and voluntary organisations, trade unions, or in Communist times publicly owned enterprises.
In May 1959, at the second Congress of Social Tourism in Austria, Walter Hunziker proposed the following definition: "Social tourism is a type of tourism practiced by low-income groups, and which is rendered possible and facilitated by entirely separate and therefore easily recognizable services".
Doom tourism:
Also known as "tourism of doom," or "last chance tourism", this emerging trend involves travelling to places that are environmentally or otherwise threatened (such as the ice caps of Mount Kilimanjaro, the melting glaciers of Patagonia, or the coral of the Great Barrier Reef) before it is too late.
Identified by travel trade magazine Travel Age West editor-in-chief Kenneth Shapiro in 2007 and later explored in The New York Times, this type of tourism is believed to be on the rise.
Some see the trend as related to sustainable tourism or ecotourism due to the fact that a number of these tourist destinations are considered threatened by environmental factors such as global warming, overpopulation or climate change.
Others worry that travel to many of these threatened locations increases an individual's carbon footprint and only hastens problems threatened locations are already facing.
Religious tourism:
Main article: Religious tourism
Religious tourism, in particular pilgrimage, can serve to strengthen faith and to demonstrate devotion. Religious tourists may seek destinations whose image encourages them to believe that they can strengthen the religious elements of their self-identity in a positive manner.
Given this, the perceived image of a destination may be positively influenced by whether it conforms to the requirements of their religious self-identity or not.
DNA tourism:
DNA tourism, also called "ancestry tourism" or "heritage travel", is tourism based on DNA testing. These tourists visit their remote relatives or places where their ancestors came from, or where their relatives reside, based on the results of DNA tests. DNA tourism became a growing trend in 2019.
Impacts:
Main article: Impacts of tourism
This section is an excerpt from Impacts of tourism.
Tourism impacts tourist destinations in both positive and negative ways, encompassing economic, socio-cultural, and environmental dimensions. The traditionally-described domains of tourism impacts are economic, socio-cultural, and environmental.
The economic effects of tourism encompass:
- improved tax revenue,
- personal income growth,
- enhanced living standards,
- and the creation of additional employment opportunities.
Sociocultural impacts are associated with interactions between people with differing cultural backgrounds, attitudes and behaviors, and relationships to material goods.
Environmental impacts can be categorized as direct effects including degradation of habitat, vegetation, air quality, bodies of water, the water table, wildlife, and changes in natural phenomena, and indirect effects, such as increased harvesting of natural resources to supply food, indirect air and water pollution (including from flights, transport and the manufacture of food and souvenirs for tourists).
Tourism also has positive and negative health outcomes for local people. The short-term negative impacts of tourism on residents' health are related to:
- the density of tourist's arrivals,
- the risk of disease transmission,
- road accidents,
- higher crime levels,
- as well as traffic congestion,
- crowding,
- and other stressful factors.
In addition, residents can experience anxiety and depression related to their risk perceptions about mortality rates, food insecurity, contact with infected tourists, etc., which can result in negative mental health outcomes.
At the same time, there are positive long-term impacts of tourism on residents' health and well-being outcomes through improving healthcare access positive emotions, novelty, and social interactions.
Growth:
The World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) forecasts that international tourism will continue growing at the average annual rate of 4%.
With the advent of e-commerce, tourism products have become prominent traded items on the internet. Tourism products and services have been made available through intermediaries, although tourism providers (hotels, airlines, etc.), including small-scale operators, can sell their services directly.
This has put pressure on intermediaries from both on-line and traditional shops.
It has been suggested there is a strong correlation between tourism expenditure per capita and the degree to which countries play in the global context. Not only as a result of the important economic contribution of the tourism industry, but also as an indicator of the degree of confidence with which global citizens leverage the resources of the globe for the benefit of their local economies.
This is why any projections of growth in tourism may serve as an indication of the relative influence that each country will exercise in the future.
Space tourism:
Main article: Space tourism
There has been a limited amount of orbital space tourism, with only the Russian Space Agency providing transport to date. A 2010 report into space tourism anticipated that it could become a billion-dollar market by 2030.
The space market has been around since 1979, however, there has been a limited amount of orbital space tourism, with only the Russian Space Agency providing transport on its Soyuz and the Chinese Shenzhou being the only two spacecrafts suitable for human travel .
In April 2001, Dennis Tito, a customer of the Russian Soyuz became the first tourist to visit space. In May 2011, Virgin Galactic launched its SpaceShipTwo plane that allows people to travel 2 hours space at the advertised price of $200,000 per seat.
A challenge that the commercial space tourism industry faces is to be able to have fundings from private investments needed to lower the cost of access to space in addition to being able to encourage both private and public sector support to increase capacity to allow commercial passengers.
With space tourism still being new concept, there are many factors that needs to be considered for the industry. From its actual demand to its risk factor to its liabilities and insurance issues, there are still a lot of research that needs to be conducted. A 2010 report into space tourism anticipated that the industry is expected to grow by 18% - 26% per year during 2020 to 2030.
Sports tourism:
Main article: Sports tourism
Since the late 1980s, sports tourism has become increasingly popular. Events such as rugby, Olympics, Commonwealth Games, Cricket World Cups and FIFA World Cups have enabled specialist travel companies to gain official ticket allocation and then sell them in packages that include flights, hotels and excursions.
Tourism security:
Tourism security is a subdiscipline of tourist studies that explores the factors that affect the ontological security of tourists. Risks are evaluated by their impact and nature. Tourism security includes methodologies, theories and techniques oriented to protect the organic image of tourist destinations.
Three academic waves are significant in tourism security: risk perception theory, disaster management, and post-disaster consumption.
Andrew Spencer & Peter Tarlow argue that tourism security is not an easy concept to define. It includes a set of sub-disciplines, and global risks different in nature which cause different effects in the tourism industry. The rise of tourism security and safety as a consolidated discipline coincides with the globalization and ultimate maturation of the industry worldwide.
Some threats include, for example, terrorist groups looking to destabilize governments affecting not only the local economies but killing foreign tourists to cause geopolitical tensions between delivery-country and receiving-tourist countries.
Today, island destinations are more affected by terrorism and other global risks than other continent destinations
Trends since 2000:
As a result of the late-2000s recession, international arrivals experienced a strong slowdown beginning in June 2008. Growth from 2007 to 2008 was only 3.7% during the first eight months of 2008. This slowdown on international tourism demand was also reflected in the air transport industry, with negative growth in September 2008 and a 3.3% growth in passenger traffic through September.
The hotel industry also reported a slowdown, with room occupancy declining. In 2009 worldwide tourism arrivals decreased by 3.8%. By the first quarter of 2009, real travel demand in the United States had fallen 6% over six quarters. While this is considerably milder than what occurred after the 9/11 attacks, the decline was at twice the rate, as real GDP has fallen.
However, evidence suggests that tourism as a global phenomenon shows no signs of substantially abating in the long term. Many people increasingly view vacations and travel as a necessity rather than a luxury, and this is reflected in tourist numbers recovering some 6.6% globally over 2009, with growth up to 8% in emerging economies.
Impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic:
Main article: Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on tourism
In 2020 the COVID-19 pandemic lock-downs, travel bans and a substantial reduction in passenger travel by air and sea contributed to a sharp decline in tourism activity.
The World Tourism Organization (WTO) reported a 70% decrease in international travel in 2020, where 165 of 217 worldwide destinations completely stopped international tourism by April 2020. Since every country imposes different travel restrictions, it makes traveling plans complicated and often too difficult to figure out, thus the willingness to travel for the general population decreases.
It is estimated that the United States lost 147 billion U.S. dollars in revenue from tourism between January and October 2020.
Spain had the next highest loss of revenue at around 46.7 billion U.S dollars, and countries in Africa collectively lost about 55 billion dollars during April and June 2020.
Negative impacts:
Nearly all sectors within the tourism industry were significantly impacted by the pandemic. Airlines had large losses of revenue due to reduced number of passenger with the International Air Transport Association (IATA) estimating airline revenue loss to be around $314 billion in 2020.
There was a 80% reduction of flights compared to the year 2019. In the food industry, many restaurants had to close which caused a ripple-effect to its related industries such as food production, farming, shipping, etc. As for the hotel industry, by June 2020 most of the hotels rooms were empty throughout the United States of America.
Positive impacts:
Virtual tourism is an emerging market that is popularized as an alternative solutions to in person tourism during the pandemic. Since many places like museums want to restrict crowdedness, virtual tours are set up to still provide visitors the experience without posing any health risks.
This creates new business models and provide new and inventive opportunities for the tourism industry. However, there is fear that virtual tourism cannot provide the same sensation for people if those activity were done in person.
See also:
Vacations, including a List of Prominent Tourist Attractions and Timeshares
- YouTube Video: Your Dream Vacation Awaits You in the British Virgin Islands - The Moorings
- YouTube Video: Visit America - Top 10 "Must Visit" Cities in the USA by WatchMojo
- YouTube Video: Top 10 Honeymoon Destinations
A vacation, or holiday, is a leave of absence from a regular occupation, or a specific trip or journey, usually for the purpose of recreation or tourism. People often take a vacation during specific holiday observances, or for specific festivals or celebrations. Vacations are often spent with friends or family.
A person may take a longer break from work, such as a sabbatical, gap year, or career break. The concept of taking a vacation is a recent invention, and has developed through the last two centuries.
Historically, the idea of travel for recreation was a luxury that only wealthy people could afford (see Grand Tour).
In the Puritan culture of early America, taking a break from work for reasons other than weekly observance of the Sabbath was frowned upon. However, the modern concept of vacation was led by a later religious movement encouraging spiritual retreat and recreation.
The notion of breaking from work periodically took root among the middle and working class.
Impact of digital communications:
Recent developments in communication technology—internet, mobile, instant messaging, presence tracking, etc.— have begun to change the nature of vacation. Vacation today means absence from the workplace rather than temporary cession of work. It is now the norm in North America and the United Kingdom, to carry on working or remain on call while on vacation rather than abandon work altogether.
Office employees telecommute while on vacation. Workers may choose to unplug for a portion of a day and thus create the feeling of a "vacation" by simply separating themselves from the demands of constant digital communications.
Antithetically, workers may take time out of the office to go on vacation, but remain plugged-in to work-related communications networks. While remaining plugged-in over vacation may generate short-term business benefits, the long-term psychological impacts of these developments are only beginning to be understood.
Regional Meaning:
See also: Tourism
Vacation, in English-speaking North America, describes recreational travel, such as a short pleasure trip, or a journey abroad. People in Commonwealth countries use the term holiday to describe absence from work as well as to describe a vacation or journey. Vacation can mean either staying home or going somewhere.
Canadians often use vacation and holiday interchangeably referring to a trip away from home or time off work. In Australia and the UK, holiday can refer to a vacation or a public holiday.
The Vanderbilts, Rockefellers, Carnegies, Huntingtons and other fabulously wealthy industrialists built their own spectacular "great camps" in the Adirondacks of upstate New York where they could spend time with their families in private luxury. The scions of New York City took to declaring that they would "vacate" their city homes for their lakeside summer retreats, and the term "vacation" replaced the British"holiday" in common parlance.
Family Vacation:
Family vacation refers to recreation taken together by the family. The intended purpose of family vacation is for family to get away from day-to-day chores and to devote time specifically for the relaxation and unity of family members.
Family vacation can be ritual—for example, annually around the same time—or it can be a one-time event. It can involve travel to a far-flung spot or, for families on a tight budget, a stay-at-home staycation. Some examples of favorite family vacations might include family cruises, trips to popular theme parks, ski vacations, beach vacations, food vacations or similar types of family trips.
Vacation policy:
In nearly all countries worldwide, there are minimum requirements as to the annual leave that must be afforded to an employee (see also List of minimum annual leave by country).
Even in the United States, where no federal requirements as to minimum annual leave exist, many large corporations have generous vacation policies, some allowing employees to take weeks off and some even allowing unlimited vacation.
Unlimited vacation arrangements may nonetheless come with implicit expectations, for instance, it may be implied that an employee should not take more than about the average number of vacation days taken by others. They normally also have the consequence that employees who leave the company receive no monetary compensation for leave days not taken.
According to the U.S. Travel Association, Americans collectively did not use 662 million vacation days in 2016. More than half of all working people in the United States forfeited paid time off at the end of the year. Two-thirds of people still do work while they are on vacation.
See also:
A timeshare (sometimes called vacation ownership) is a property with a divided form of ownership or use rights. These properties are typically resort condominium units, in which multiple parties hold rights to use the property, and each owner of the same accommodation is allotted their period of time.
The minimum purchase is a one-week ownership, and the high-season weeks demand higher prices. Units may be sold as a partial ownership, lease, or "right to use", in which case the latter holds no claim to ownership of the property. The ownership of timeshare programs is varied, and has been changing over the decades.
Click on any of the following blue hyperlinks for more about Timeshares:
A person may take a longer break from work, such as a sabbatical, gap year, or career break. The concept of taking a vacation is a recent invention, and has developed through the last two centuries.
Historically, the idea of travel for recreation was a luxury that only wealthy people could afford (see Grand Tour).
In the Puritan culture of early America, taking a break from work for reasons other than weekly observance of the Sabbath was frowned upon. However, the modern concept of vacation was led by a later religious movement encouraging spiritual retreat and recreation.
The notion of breaking from work periodically took root among the middle and working class.
Impact of digital communications:
Recent developments in communication technology—internet, mobile, instant messaging, presence tracking, etc.— have begun to change the nature of vacation. Vacation today means absence from the workplace rather than temporary cession of work. It is now the norm in North America and the United Kingdom, to carry on working or remain on call while on vacation rather than abandon work altogether.
Office employees telecommute while on vacation. Workers may choose to unplug for a portion of a day and thus create the feeling of a "vacation" by simply separating themselves from the demands of constant digital communications.
Antithetically, workers may take time out of the office to go on vacation, but remain plugged-in to work-related communications networks. While remaining plugged-in over vacation may generate short-term business benefits, the long-term psychological impacts of these developments are only beginning to be understood.
Regional Meaning:
See also: Tourism
Vacation, in English-speaking North America, describes recreational travel, such as a short pleasure trip, or a journey abroad. People in Commonwealth countries use the term holiday to describe absence from work as well as to describe a vacation or journey. Vacation can mean either staying home or going somewhere.
Canadians often use vacation and holiday interchangeably referring to a trip away from home or time off work. In Australia and the UK, holiday can refer to a vacation or a public holiday.
The Vanderbilts, Rockefellers, Carnegies, Huntingtons and other fabulously wealthy industrialists built their own spectacular "great camps" in the Adirondacks of upstate New York where they could spend time with their families in private luxury. The scions of New York City took to declaring that they would "vacate" their city homes for their lakeside summer retreats, and the term "vacation" replaced the British"holiday" in common parlance.
Family Vacation:
Family vacation refers to recreation taken together by the family. The intended purpose of family vacation is for family to get away from day-to-day chores and to devote time specifically for the relaxation and unity of family members.
Family vacation can be ritual—for example, annually around the same time—or it can be a one-time event. It can involve travel to a far-flung spot or, for families on a tight budget, a stay-at-home staycation. Some examples of favorite family vacations might include family cruises, trips to popular theme parks, ski vacations, beach vacations, food vacations or similar types of family trips.
Vacation policy:
In nearly all countries worldwide, there are minimum requirements as to the annual leave that must be afforded to an employee (see also List of minimum annual leave by country).
Even in the United States, where no federal requirements as to minimum annual leave exist, many large corporations have generous vacation policies, some allowing employees to take weeks off and some even allowing unlimited vacation.
Unlimited vacation arrangements may nonetheless come with implicit expectations, for instance, it may be implied that an employee should not take more than about the average number of vacation days taken by others. They normally also have the consequence that employees who leave the company receive no monetary compensation for leave days not taken.
According to the U.S. Travel Association, Americans collectively did not use 662 million vacation days in 2016. More than half of all working people in the United States forfeited paid time off at the end of the year. Two-thirds of people still do work while they are on vacation.
See also:
- Active vacation
- Adventure travel
- Annual leave
- Bank holiday
- Family reunion
- Mancation
- Paid time off
- Summer vacation
- Work–life balance
A timeshare (sometimes called vacation ownership) is a property with a divided form of ownership or use rights. These properties are typically resort condominium units, in which multiple parties hold rights to use the property, and each owner of the same accommodation is allotted their period of time.
The minimum purchase is a one-week ownership, and the high-season weeks demand higher prices. Units may be sold as a partial ownership, lease, or "right to use", in which case the latter holds no claim to ownership of the property. The ownership of timeshare programs is varied, and has been changing over the decades.
Click on any of the following blue hyperlinks for more about Timeshares:
- History
- Legislation
- Methods of use
- Varieties
- Types and sizes of accommodations
- Sales incentives
- Criticism
- See also:
Sustainable Tourism, including Sustainable Event Management
TOP: 2001 Royal Clipper Karibik is a sail boat that uses the wind to propel itself forward, thereby causing fewer greenhouse gas emissions and less air pollution than ships using fossil energy sources. (courtesy of By Monster4711 - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=17091637)
BOTTOM: 17 Green Event Ideas That Can Make a Huge Difference | Cvent Blog
- YouTube Video: What is Sustainable Tourism?
- YouTube Video of 5 Examples Of Sustainable Tourism Around The World
- YouTube Video: A Guide to Sustainable Event Management
TOP: 2001 Royal Clipper Karibik is a sail boat that uses the wind to propel itself forward, thereby causing fewer greenhouse gas emissions and less air pollution than ships using fossil energy sources. (courtesy of By Monster4711 - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=17091637)
BOTTOM: 17 Green Event Ideas That Can Make a Huge Difference | Cvent Blog
Sustainable tourism is a concept that covers the complete tourism experience, including concern for economic, social and environmental issues as well as attention to improving tourists' experiences and addressing the needs of host communities.
Sustainable tourism should embrace concerns for environmental protection, social equity, and the quality of life, cultural diversity, and a dynamic, viable economy delivering jobs and prosperity for all. It has its roots in sustainable development and there can be some confusion as to what "sustainable tourism" means.
There is now broad consensus that tourism should be sustainable. In fact, all forms of tourism have the potential to be sustainable if planned, developed and managed properly.
Tourist development organizations are promoting sustainable tourism practices in order to mitigate negative effects caused by the growing impact of tourism, due to its environmental impacts.
The United Nations World Tourism Organization emphasized these practices by promoting sustainable tourism as part of the Sustainable Development Goals, through programs like the International Year for Sustainable Tourism for Development in 2017.
There is a direct link between sustainable tourism and several of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Tourism for SDGs focuses on how:
According to the World Travel & Tourism Travel, tourism contributed "10.3 percent to the global gross domestic product, with international tourist arrivals hitting 1.5 billion marks (a growth of 3.5 percent) in 2019" and generated $1.7 trillion export earnings yet, improvements are expected to be gained from suitable management aspects and including sustainable tourism as part of a broader sustainable development strategy.
Definition:
Sustainable tourism is "an exceedingly complex concept with varied definitions due to different interpretations of the meaning and use of the concept". It has its roots in sustainable development, a term that is "open to wide interpretation". This can lead to some confusion as to what sustainable tourism means.
A definition of sustainable tourism from 2020 is: "Tourism which is developed and maintained in an area in such a manner and at such a scale that it remains viable over an infinite period while safeguarding the Earth's life-support system on which the welfare of current and future generations depends."
Sustainable tourism covers the complete tourism experience, including concern for economic, social and environmental issues as well as attention to improving tourists' experiences. The concept of sustainable tourism aims to reduce the negative effects of tourism activities. This has become almost universally accepted as a desirable and politically appropriate approach to tourism development.
Background:
Global goals:
The United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), is the custodian agency to monitor the targets of Sustainable Development Goal 8 ("decent work and economic growth") that are related to tourism.
The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) or Global Goals are a collection of 17 interlinked global goals designed to be a "blueprint to achieve a better and more sustainable future for all". Given the dramatic increase in tourism, the report strongly promotes responsible tourism.
Even though some countries and sectors in the industry are creating initiatives for tourism in addressing the SDGs, knowledge sharing, finance and policy for sustainable tourism are not fully addressing the needs of stakeholders.
The SDGs include targets on tourism and sustainable tourism in several goals:
Comparison with conventional tourism and mass tourism:
According to the UNWTO, "Tourism comprises the activities of persons traveling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business and other purposes." Global economists forecast continuing international tourism growth, the amount depending on the location.
As one of the world's largest and fastest-growing industries, this continuous growth will place great stress on remaining biologically diverse habitats and Indigenous cultures.
Mass tourism is the organized movement of large numbers of tourists to popular destinations such as theme parks, national parks, beaches or cruise ships. Mass tourism uses standardized packaged leisure products and experiences packaged to accommodate large number of tourists at the same time.
Related similar concepts:
Responsible tourism:
While "sustainable tourism" is a concept, the term "responsible tourism" refers to the behaviors and practices that can lead to sustainable tourism. For example, backpacker tourism is a trend that contributes to sustainability from the various environmental, economic, and cultural activities associated with it.
All stakeholders are responsible for the kind of tourism they develop or engage in. Both service providers and purchasers or consumers are held accountable. Being responsible demands “thinking” by using planning and development frameworks that are properly grounded in ethical thinking around what is good and right for communities, the natural world and tourists.
According to the Center for Responsible Tourism, responsible tourism is "tourism that maximizes the benefits to local communities, minimizes negative social or environmental impacts, and helps local people conserve fragile cultures and habitats or species."
Responsible tourism incorporates not only being responsible for interactions with the physical environment, but also of the economic and social interactions. While different groups will see responsibility in different ways, the shared understanding is that responsible tourism should entail improvements in tourism.
This would include ethical thinking around what is "good" and "right" for local communities and the natural world, as well as for tourists. Responsible tourism is an aspiration that can be realized in different ways in different originating markets and in the diverse destinations of the world.
Responsible tourism has also been critiqued. Studies have shown that the degree to which individuals engage in responsible tourism is contingent upon their engagement socially. Meaning, tourist behaviors will fluctuate depending on the range of social engagement that each tourist chooses to take part in.
A study regarding responsible tourists behavior concludes that it is not only a personal behavior of tourists that shape outcomes, but also a reflection of mechanisms put in place by governments. Other research has put into question the promise that tourism, even responsible tourism, is inline with UN Sustainable Development Goals given the difficulties in measuring such impact. Some argue that it actually detracts attention from the wider issues surrounding tourism that are in need of regulation, such as the number of visitors and environmental impact.
Ecotourism:
This section is an excerpt from Ecotourism.
Ecotourism is a form of tourism marketed as "responsible" travel (using what proponents say is sustainable transport) to natural areas, conserving the environment, and improving the well-being of the local people.
The stated purpose may be to educate the traveler, to provide funds for ecological conservation, to directly benefit the economic development and political empowerment of local communities, or to foster respect for different cultures and human rights.
Criticism:
See also: Ecotourism § Criticism
Although we are seeking solutions for sustainable tourism, there is no desirable change in the tourism system. Sustainable models must be able to adapt to new challenges a face a wider form of societal transformations. Many critics view the extractive nature of "sustainable tourism" as an oxymoron, as it is fundamentally unable to continue indefinitely.
True and perfect sustainability is likely impossible in all but the most favorable circumstances, as the interests of equity, economy, and ecology often conflict with one another and require tradeoffs. It is a reality that many things are done in the name of sustainability are actually masking the desire to allow extra profits.
There is often alienation of local populations from the tourists. Such cases highlight that sustainable tourism covers a wide spectrum from "very weak" to "very strong" when the degree of anthropocentricism and exploitation of human and natural resources is taken into account.
Stakeholders:
Stakeholders of sustainable tourism can include organizations as well as individuals. A stakeholder in the tourism industry is deemed to be anyone who is impacted by development positively or negatively. Stakeholder involvement reduces potential conflict between the tourists and host community by involving the latter in shaping the way in which tourism develops.
Governments and good governance:
The government plays an important role in encouraging sustainable tourism whether it be through marketing, information services, education, and advice through public-private collaborations. However, the values and ulterior motives of governments often need to be taken into account when assessing the motives for sustainable tourism.
One important factor to consider in any ecologically sensitive or remote area or an area new to tourism is that of carrying capacity. This is the capacity of tourists of visitors an area can sustainably tolerate over time without damaging the environment or culture of the surrounding area.
This can be altered and revised in time and with changing perceptions and values.
Scholars have pointed out that partnerships "incrementally nudge governance towards greater inclusion of diverse stakeholders". Partnerships refer to cooperation between private, public and civil society actors. Its purpose is to implement sustainability policies. Governance is essential in developing partnership initiatives.
Good governance principles for National Parks and protected areas management include legitimacy and voice, direction, performance, accountability and fairness.
Non-governmental organizations:
Non-governmental organizations are one of the stakeholders in advocating sustainable tourism. Their roles can range from spearheading sustainable tourism practices to simply doing research. University research teams and scientists can be tapped to aid in the process of planning.
Such solicitation of research can be observed in the planning of Cát Bà National Park in Vietnam.
Dive resort operators in Bunaken National Park, Indonesia, play a crucial role by developing exclusive zones for diving and fishing respectively, such that both tourists and locals can benefit from the venture.
Large conventions, meetings and other major organized events drive the travel, tourism, and hospitality industry.
Cities and convention centers compete to attract such commerce, commerce which has heavy impacts on resource use and the environment. Major sporting events, such as the Olympic Games, present special problems regarding environmental burdens and degradation. But burdens imposed by the regular convention industry can be vastly more significant.
Green conventions and events are a new but growing sector and marketing point within the convention and hospitality industry. More environmentally aware organizations, corporations, and government agencies are now seeking more sustainable event practices, greener hotels, restaurants and convention venues, and more energy-efficient or climate-neutral travel and ground transportation.
However, the convention trip not taken can be the most sustainable option: "With most international conferences having hundreds if not thousands of participants, and the bulk of these usually traveling by plane, conference travel is an area where significant reductions in air-travel-related GHG emissions could be made. ... This does not mean non-attendance" (Reay, 2004), since modern Internet communications are now ubiquitous and remote audio/visual participation.
For example, by 2003 Access Grid technology had already successfully hosted several international conferences. A particular example is the large American Geophysical Union's annual meeting, which has used live streaming for several years. This provides live streams and recordings of keynotes, named lectures, and oral sessions, and provides opportunities to submit questions and interact with authors and peers.
Following the live-stream, the recording of each session is posted online within 24 hours.
Some convention centers have begun to take direct action in reducing the impact of the conventions they host.
One example is the Moscone Center in San Francisco, which has a very aggressive recycling program, a large solar power system, and other programs aimed at reducing impact and increasing efficiency.
Local communities:
Local communities benefit from sustainable tourism through economic development, job creation, and infrastructure development. Tourism revenues bring economic growth and prosperity to attractive tourist destinations, which can raise the standard of living in destination communities.
Sustainable tourism operators commit themselves to creating jobs for local community members. An increase in tourism revenue to an area acts as a driver for the development of increased infrastructure.
As tourist demands increase in a destination, a more robust infrastructure is needed to support the needs of both the tourism industry and the local community. A 2009 study of rural operators throughout the province of British Columbia, Canada found "an overall strong 'pro-sustainability' attitude among respondents.
Dominant barriers identified were lack of available money to invest, lack of incentive programs, other business priorities, and limited access to suppliers of sustainable products, with the most common recommendation being the need for incentive programs to encourage businesses to become more sustainable."
International organizations:
The Global Sustainable Tourism Council (GSTC) serves as the international body for fostering increased knowledge and understanding of sustainable tourism practices, promoting the adoption of universal sustainable tourism principles, and building demand for sustainable travel.
GSTC launched the GSTC Criteria, a global standard for sustainable travel and tourism, which includes criteria and performance indicators for destinations, tour operators and hotels. The GSTC Criteria serve as the international standard for certification agencies (the organizations that would inspect a tourism product, and certify them as a sustainable company).
The GSTC Criteria has the potential to be applied to national parks to improve the standards of operation and increase sustainability efforts in the United States.
Sustainable transport and mobility:
Further information: sustainable transport and environmental impact of aviation
Tourism can be related to travel for leisure, business and visiting friends and relatives and can also include means of transportation related to tourism. Without travel there is no tourism, so the concept of sustainable tourism is tightly linked to a concept of sustainable transport.
Two relevant considerations are tourism's reliance on fossil fuels and tourism's effect on climate change. 72 percent of tourism's CO2 emissions come from transportation, 24 percent from accommodations, and 4 percent from local activities.
Aviation accounts for 55% of those transportation CO2 emissions (or 40% of tourism's total). However, when considering the impact of all greenhouse gas emissions, of condensation trails and induced cirrus clouds, aviation alone could account for up to 75% of tourism's climate impact.
The International Air Transport Association (IATA) considers an annual increase in aviation fuel efficiency of 2 percent per year through 2050 to be realistic. However, both Airbus and Boeing expect the passenger-kilometers of air transport to increase by about 5 percent yearly through at least 2020, overwhelming any efficiency gains.
By 2050, with other economic sectors having greatly reduced their CO2 emissions, tourism is likely to be generating 40 percent of global carbon emissions. The main cause is an increase in the average distance traveled by tourists, which for many years has been increasing at a faster rate than the number of trips taken.
"Sustainable transportation is now established as the critical issue confronting a global tourism industry that is palpably unsustainable, and aviation lies at the heart of this issue."
The European Tourism Manifesto has also called for an acceleration in the development of cycling infrastructure to boost local clean energy travel. Deployment of non-motorized infrastructures and the re-use of abandoned transport infrastructure (such as disused railways) for cycling and walking has been proposed.
Connectivity between these non-motorized routes (greenways, cycle routes) and main attractions nearby (i.e. Natura2000 sites, UNESCO sites, etc.) has also been requested. It has also called for sufficient and predictable rail infrastructure funding, and a focus on digital multimodal practices, including end-to-end ticketing (such as Interrail), all of which are in-line with the EU's modal shift goal.
Global tourism accounts for about eight percent of global greenhouse gas emissions. This percentage takes into account airline transportation as well as other significant environmental and social impacts that are not always beneficial to local communities and their economies.
Challenges:
Further information: Impacts of tourism
Displacement and resettlement:
In places where there was no tourism prior to tourism companies' arrival, displacement and resettlement of local communities is a common issue.
For example, the Maasai tribes in Tanzania have been a victim of this problem. After the second World War, conservationists moved into the areas where the Maasai tribes lived, with the intent to make such areas accessible to tourists and to preserve the areas' natural beauty and ecology.
This was often achieved through establishing national parks and conservation areas. It has been claimed that Maasai activities did not threaten the wildlife and the knowledge was blurred by "colonial disdain" and misunderstandings of savannah wildlife. As the Maasai have been displaced, the area within the Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA) has been adapted to allow easier access for tourists through the construction of campsites and tracks, as well as the removal of stone objects such as stones for souvenirs.
Environmental impacts:
This section is an excerpt from Impacts of tourism § Environmental impacts.
Ecotourism, nature tourism, wildlife tourism, and adventure tourism take place in environments such as rain forests, high alpine, wilderness, lakes and rivers, coastlines and marine environments, as well as rural villages and coastline resorts.
Peoples' desire for more authentic and challenging experiences results in their destinations becoming more remote, to the few remaining pristine and natural environments left on the planet.
The positive impact of this can be an increased awareness of environmental stewardship. The negative impact can be a destruction of the very experience that people are seeking.
There are direct and indirect impacts, immediate and long-term impacts, and there are impacts that are both proximal and distal to the tourist destination. These impacts can be separated into three categories: facility impacts, tourist activities, and the transit effect.
Environmental sustainability focuses on the overall viability and health of ecological systems. Natural resource degradation, pollution, and loss of biodiversity are detrimental because they increase vulnerability, undermine system health, and reduce resilience.
More research is needed to assess the impacts of tourism on natural capital and ecosystem services. Interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary research is needed to address how the tourism industry impacts waste and wastewater treatment, pollination, food security, raw materials, genetic resources, oil and natural gas regulation and ecosystem functions such as soil retention and nutrient recycling.
Improvements:
Management aspects:
Promotion of sustainable tourism practices are often connected to the management of tourist locations by locals or the community. This form of tourism is based on the premise that the people living next to a resource are the ones best suited to protecting it. This means that the tourism activities and businesses are developed and operated by local community members, and certainly with their consent and support.
Sustainable tourism typically involves the conservation of resources that are capitalized upon for tourism purposes. Locals run the businesses and are responsible for promoting the conservation messages to protect their environment.
Community-based sustainable tourism (CBST) associates the success of the sustainability of the ecotourism location to the management practices of the communities who are directly or indirectly dependent on the location for their livelihoods.
A salient feature of CBST is that local knowledge is usually utilized alongside wide general frameworks of ecotourism business models. This allows the participation of locals at the management level and typically allows a more intimate understanding of the environment.
The use of local knowledge also means an easier entry level into a tourism industry for locals whose jobs or livelihoods are affected by the use of their environment as tourism locations.
Environmentally sustainable development crucially depends on the presence of local support for a project. It has also been noted that in order for success projects must provide direct benefits for the local community.
However, recent research has found that economic linkages generated by CBST may only be sporadic, and that the linkages with agriculture are negatively affected by seasonality and by the small scale of the cultivated areas. This means that CBST may only have small-scale positive effects for these communities.
Partnerships between governments and tourism agencies with smaller communities are not particularly effective because of the disparity in aims between the two groups, i.e. true sustainability versus mass tourism for maximum profit.
In Honduras, such a divergence can be demonstrated where consultants from the World Bank and officials from the Institute of tourism wanted to set up a selection of 5-star hotels near various ecotourism destinations. But another operating approach in the region by USAID and APROECOH (an ecotourism association) promotes community-based efforts which have trained many local Hondurans. Grassroot organizations were more successful in Honduras.
As part of a development strategy:
Developing countries are especially interested in international tourism, and many believe it brings countries a large selection of economic benefits including employment opportunities, small business development, and increased in payments of foreign exchange.
Many assume that more money is gained through developing luxury goods and services in spite of the fact that this increases a countries dependency on imported products, foreign investments and expatriate skills.
This classic 'trickle down' financial strategy rarely makes its way down to brings its benefits down to small businesses.
It has been said that the economic benefits of large-scale tourism are not doubted but that the backpacker or budget traveler sector is often neglected as a potential growth sector by developing countries governments. This sector brings significant non-economic benefits which could help to empower and educate the communities involved in this sector.
"Aiming 'low' builds upon the skills of the local population, promotes self-reliance, and develops the confidence of community members in dealing with outsiders, all signs of empowerment" and all of which aid in the overall development of a nation.
In the 1990s, international tourism was seen as an import potential growth sector for many countries, particularly in developing countries as many of the world's most beautiful and 'untouched' places are located in developing countries.
Prior to the 1960s, studies tended to assume that the extension of the tourism industry to LEDCs was a good thing. In the 1970s, this changed as academics started to take a much more negative view on tourism's consequences, particularly criticizing the industry as an effective contributor towards development.
International tourism is a volatile industry with visitors quick to abandon destinations that were formerly popular because of threats to health or security.
Tourism is seen as a resilient industry and bounces back quickly after severe setbacks, like natural disasters, September 11th attacks and COVID-19. Many call for more attention to "lessons learned" from these setbacks to improve mitigation measures that could be taken in advance.
Trends:
Impacts of COVID-19 pandemic
Further information: Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on tourism
Due to COVID-19, an unprecedented decrease of 65% took place in international tourist numbers in first half of 2020 as compared to 2019. Countries around the world closed their borders and introduced travel restrictions in response to the pandemic.
The situation is expected to gradually improve in 2021 depending upon lifting of travel restrictions, availability of COVID-19 vaccine and return of traveler confidence.
Furthermore, the current COVID-19 pandemic has made many sustainability challenges of tourism clearer. Therefore sustainable tourism scholars call for a transformation of tourism. They state that the COVID-19 pandemic has created a window of opportunity, in which stakeholders can shift towards more sustainable practices and rethink systems.
The system cannot be sustained in its current form. The constant aim for economic growth goes at the expense of Earth's ecosystems, wildlife, and well-being. The gap between rich and poor is growing every year, and the pandemic has spurred this even further. Our current systems are often in place for the few, leaving the many behind.
This is no different for the global and local tourism systems. Therefore, tourism scholars argue we should learn from the pandemic. "COVID-19 provides striking lessons to the tourism industry, policy makers and tourism researchers about the effects of global change.
The challenge is now to collectively learn from this global tragedy to accelerate the transformation of sustainable tourism".
Technology is seen as a partial solution to the disruptive impacts of pandemics like COVID-19. Although it can be counterproductive for sustainable tourism if it is utilized for data collection that may be misused for mass tourism, technology and digital advancements have provided the tools necessary for e-tourism to evolve and become more valuable amidst the pandemic.
Scholars argue that "surrogate tourism" will allow tourists to remain home while employing local guides at the destination to facilitate personalized, interactive, real-time tours (PIRTs).
While these options will not take the place of conventional travel experience, there is a market for PIRTs especially for persons with disabilities and the elderly, and for the "sustainable citizen who wishes to minimize their impact on the planet".
History:
Historically, the movement toward sustainable tourism through responsible tourism emerged following the environmental awareness that rose out of the 1960s and 1970s amid a growing phenomenon of "mass tourism". In 1973, the European Travel Commission initiated a multilateral effort to advance environmentally sound tourism and development.
Jost Krippendorf, a former professor at the University of Bern, is considered to be one of the first individuals to express ideas about sustainable tourism. In his book "The landscape eaters", Krippendorf argues for “sanfter turismus”, or "soft tourism". The South
African national tourism policy (1996) used the term "responsible tourism" and mentioned the well-being of the local community as a main factor.
In 2014, the Cape Town Declaration on Responsible Tourism focused on the role of business in promoting responsible tourism. While further research is needed to understand the impacts of responsible tourism, a study conducted in 2017 found that well-managed responsible tourism practices were beneficial to local communities.
Examples:
Forest tourism:
The Haliburton Sustainable Forest in central Ontario, Canada is a sustainably managed and privately owned 100,000 forest that supports both tourism and the logging industry.
Based on a 100-year plan for sustaining the forest, the Haliburton Sustainable Forest has sources of income with tourism and logging that contribute to the long-term stability of the local economy and to the health of the forest.
In just over four decades the forest has been transformed from a run-down forestry holding to a flourishing, multi-use operation with benefits to owners, employees and the public at large as well as the environment.
Sustainable touristic cities:
In 2019, Machu Picchu in Peru was "recognized as Latin America's first 100% sustainable city through the management of its waste".
Organizations:
Biosphere Tourism is an organization that certifies industry players who are able to balance sociocultural, economic and ecological factors within a tourism destination.
The TreadRight Foundation (The Travel Corporation's not-for-profit foundation) has been recognized in 2019 by the UNWTO's annual awards for its pioneering work in sustainability.
Geosport:
Geosport is one of the latest concepts in the field of tourism, mainly focusing on promoting spaces, sports heritage sites, and routes as means of attracting tourists through sustainability and sustainable management measures.
Geosport combines local cultural heritage, natural resources, and destination branding with sport. It allows visitors to explore the local cultural and natural heritage more deeply. By enhancing the communication between people and the environment, the concepts of sustainable development and environmental protection are subtly promoted.
See also:
Sustainable event management
Sustainable event management (also known as event greening) is event management with particular concern for environmental, economic and social issues.
Sustainability in event management incorporates socially and environmentally responsible decision making into the planning, organisation and implementation of, and participation in, an event.
Sport events:
Main article: Green sport event
Event greening is however not only limited to sports events, and other examples include:
Monitoring and evaluation:
Monitoring and evaluation is an essential component of event greening, and should be used to make continuous improvement. A detailed plan needs to be in place to ensure that information is gathered on all aspects of the event – before, during, and also after the event.
This ensures that information is available to understand the effects of greening interventions (e.g. to what extent was water used, and how did water-saving measures reduce water use), as well as the potential improvements to future event-greening initiatives.
With large events it is best to ensure an independent report, which complies with international standards, such as the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI).
The GRI Event Organizers Supplement provides organizations in the sector with a tailored version of GRI's Reporting Guidelines. It includes the original Guidelines, which set out the Reporting Principles, Disclosures on Management Approach and Performance Indicators for economic, environmental and social issues.
The Event Organizers Supplement's capture the issues that matter most for event organizers to be reported on:
Germany's giz gives a similar lists of the fields of activity which must be organized and monitored:
The British Standard (BS 8901) has been developed specifically for the events industry with a purpose of helping the industry to operate in a more sustainable manner. The standard defines the requirements for a sustainability event management system to ensure an enduring and balanced approach to economic activity, environmental responsibility and social progress relating to events.
It requires organizations to identify and understand the effects that their activities have on the environment, on society and on the economy both within the organization and the wider economy; and put measures in place to minimize the negative effects. These standards will however be replaced by the International Standard (ISO 20121) for Sustainability Management Systems.
Steps to Planning A Sustainable Event:
Standards for Sustainable Events:
Planning a sustainable event with ease requires certain standards or barometers. ISO 202121 is one such international standard for sustainable event management. This docket provides a strategic framework for planning and executing sustainable events.
These standards help organisers better understand the environmental, social and economical impact of events. This helps ensure that all events are organised without causing negative environmental impacts or effecting sustainability.
ISO 202121 aims to eliminate the carbon footprint of events by reducing waste generation, promoting energy conservation, encouraging green and sustainable transportation and using sustainable materials and products. ISO 20121 guidelines are beneficial to event organisers as it allows them to increase sustainability, reduce costs, improve credibility and reputation and engage stakeholders.
See also:
Sustainable tourism should embrace concerns for environmental protection, social equity, and the quality of life, cultural diversity, and a dynamic, viable economy delivering jobs and prosperity for all. It has its roots in sustainable development and there can be some confusion as to what "sustainable tourism" means.
There is now broad consensus that tourism should be sustainable. In fact, all forms of tourism have the potential to be sustainable if planned, developed and managed properly.
Tourist development organizations are promoting sustainable tourism practices in order to mitigate negative effects caused by the growing impact of tourism, due to its environmental impacts.
The United Nations World Tourism Organization emphasized these practices by promoting sustainable tourism as part of the Sustainable Development Goals, through programs like the International Year for Sustainable Tourism for Development in 2017.
There is a direct link between sustainable tourism and several of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Tourism for SDGs focuses on how:
- SDG 8 ("promotes decent work and economic growth"),
- SDG 12 ("is responsible for consumption and production")
- SDG 14 (how "life below water" implicate tourism in creating a sustainable economy.
According to the World Travel & Tourism Travel, tourism contributed "10.3 percent to the global gross domestic product, with international tourist arrivals hitting 1.5 billion marks (a growth of 3.5 percent) in 2019" and generated $1.7 trillion export earnings yet, improvements are expected to be gained from suitable management aspects and including sustainable tourism as part of a broader sustainable development strategy.
Definition:
Sustainable tourism is "an exceedingly complex concept with varied definitions due to different interpretations of the meaning and use of the concept". It has its roots in sustainable development, a term that is "open to wide interpretation". This can lead to some confusion as to what sustainable tourism means.
A definition of sustainable tourism from 2020 is: "Tourism which is developed and maintained in an area in such a manner and at such a scale that it remains viable over an infinite period while safeguarding the Earth's life-support system on which the welfare of current and future generations depends."
Sustainable tourism covers the complete tourism experience, including concern for economic, social and environmental issues as well as attention to improving tourists' experiences. The concept of sustainable tourism aims to reduce the negative effects of tourism activities. This has become almost universally accepted as a desirable and politically appropriate approach to tourism development.
Background:
Global goals:
The United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), is the custodian agency to monitor the targets of Sustainable Development Goal 8 ("decent work and economic growth") that are related to tourism.
The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) or Global Goals are a collection of 17 interlinked global goals designed to be a "blueprint to achieve a better and more sustainable future for all". Given the dramatic increase in tourism, the report strongly promotes responsible tourism.
Even though some countries and sectors in the industry are creating initiatives for tourism in addressing the SDGs, knowledge sharing, finance and policy for sustainable tourism are not fully addressing the needs of stakeholders.
The SDGs include targets on tourism and sustainable tourism in several goals:
- Target 8.9 of SDG 8 (Decent work and economic growth) states: "By 2030, devise and implement policies to promote sustainable tourism that creates jobs and promotes local culture and products".
- Target 12.b of SDG 12 (responsible consumption and production) is formulated as "Develop and implement tools to monitor sustainable development impacts for sustainable tourism that creates jobs and promotes local culture and products." UNWTO is the custodian agency for this target.
- Target 14.7 of SDG 14 (Life below Water) is to: "By 2030, increase the economic benefits to small island developing States and least developed countries from the sustainable use of marine resources, including through sustainable management of fisheries, aquaculture and tourism".
Comparison with conventional tourism and mass tourism:
According to the UNWTO, "Tourism comprises the activities of persons traveling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business and other purposes." Global economists forecast continuing international tourism growth, the amount depending on the location.
As one of the world's largest and fastest-growing industries, this continuous growth will place great stress on remaining biologically diverse habitats and Indigenous cultures.
Mass tourism is the organized movement of large numbers of tourists to popular destinations such as theme parks, national parks, beaches or cruise ships. Mass tourism uses standardized packaged leisure products and experiences packaged to accommodate large number of tourists at the same time.
Related similar concepts:
Responsible tourism:
While "sustainable tourism" is a concept, the term "responsible tourism" refers to the behaviors and practices that can lead to sustainable tourism. For example, backpacker tourism is a trend that contributes to sustainability from the various environmental, economic, and cultural activities associated with it.
All stakeholders are responsible for the kind of tourism they develop or engage in. Both service providers and purchasers or consumers are held accountable. Being responsible demands “thinking” by using planning and development frameworks that are properly grounded in ethical thinking around what is good and right for communities, the natural world and tourists.
According to the Center for Responsible Tourism, responsible tourism is "tourism that maximizes the benefits to local communities, minimizes negative social or environmental impacts, and helps local people conserve fragile cultures and habitats or species."
Responsible tourism incorporates not only being responsible for interactions with the physical environment, but also of the economic and social interactions. While different groups will see responsibility in different ways, the shared understanding is that responsible tourism should entail improvements in tourism.
This would include ethical thinking around what is "good" and "right" for local communities and the natural world, as well as for tourists. Responsible tourism is an aspiration that can be realized in different ways in different originating markets and in the diverse destinations of the world.
Responsible tourism has also been critiqued. Studies have shown that the degree to which individuals engage in responsible tourism is contingent upon their engagement socially. Meaning, tourist behaviors will fluctuate depending on the range of social engagement that each tourist chooses to take part in.
A study regarding responsible tourists behavior concludes that it is not only a personal behavior of tourists that shape outcomes, but also a reflection of mechanisms put in place by governments. Other research has put into question the promise that tourism, even responsible tourism, is inline with UN Sustainable Development Goals given the difficulties in measuring such impact. Some argue that it actually detracts attention from the wider issues surrounding tourism that are in need of regulation, such as the number of visitors and environmental impact.
Ecotourism:
This section is an excerpt from Ecotourism.
Ecotourism is a form of tourism marketed as "responsible" travel (using what proponents say is sustainable transport) to natural areas, conserving the environment, and improving the well-being of the local people.
The stated purpose may be to educate the traveler, to provide funds for ecological conservation, to directly benefit the economic development and political empowerment of local communities, or to foster respect for different cultures and human rights.
Criticism:
See also: Ecotourism § Criticism
Although we are seeking solutions for sustainable tourism, there is no desirable change in the tourism system. Sustainable models must be able to adapt to new challenges a face a wider form of societal transformations. Many critics view the extractive nature of "sustainable tourism" as an oxymoron, as it is fundamentally unable to continue indefinitely.
True and perfect sustainability is likely impossible in all but the most favorable circumstances, as the interests of equity, economy, and ecology often conflict with one another and require tradeoffs. It is a reality that many things are done in the name of sustainability are actually masking the desire to allow extra profits.
There is often alienation of local populations from the tourists. Such cases highlight that sustainable tourism covers a wide spectrum from "very weak" to "very strong" when the degree of anthropocentricism and exploitation of human and natural resources is taken into account.
Stakeholders:
Stakeholders of sustainable tourism can include organizations as well as individuals. A stakeholder in the tourism industry is deemed to be anyone who is impacted by development positively or negatively. Stakeholder involvement reduces potential conflict between the tourists and host community by involving the latter in shaping the way in which tourism develops.
Governments and good governance:
The government plays an important role in encouraging sustainable tourism whether it be through marketing, information services, education, and advice through public-private collaborations. However, the values and ulterior motives of governments often need to be taken into account when assessing the motives for sustainable tourism.
One important factor to consider in any ecologically sensitive or remote area or an area new to tourism is that of carrying capacity. This is the capacity of tourists of visitors an area can sustainably tolerate over time without damaging the environment or culture of the surrounding area.
This can be altered and revised in time and with changing perceptions and values.
Scholars have pointed out that partnerships "incrementally nudge governance towards greater inclusion of diverse stakeholders". Partnerships refer to cooperation between private, public and civil society actors. Its purpose is to implement sustainability policies. Governance is essential in developing partnership initiatives.
Good governance principles for National Parks and protected areas management include legitimacy and voice, direction, performance, accountability and fairness.
Non-governmental organizations:
Non-governmental organizations are one of the stakeholders in advocating sustainable tourism. Their roles can range from spearheading sustainable tourism practices to simply doing research. University research teams and scientists can be tapped to aid in the process of planning.
Such solicitation of research can be observed in the planning of Cát Bà National Park in Vietnam.
Dive resort operators in Bunaken National Park, Indonesia, play a crucial role by developing exclusive zones for diving and fishing respectively, such that both tourists and locals can benefit from the venture.
Large conventions, meetings and other major organized events drive the travel, tourism, and hospitality industry.
Cities and convention centers compete to attract such commerce, commerce which has heavy impacts on resource use and the environment. Major sporting events, such as the Olympic Games, present special problems regarding environmental burdens and degradation. But burdens imposed by the regular convention industry can be vastly more significant.
Green conventions and events are a new but growing sector and marketing point within the convention and hospitality industry. More environmentally aware organizations, corporations, and government agencies are now seeking more sustainable event practices, greener hotels, restaurants and convention venues, and more energy-efficient or climate-neutral travel and ground transportation.
However, the convention trip not taken can be the most sustainable option: "With most international conferences having hundreds if not thousands of participants, and the bulk of these usually traveling by plane, conference travel is an area where significant reductions in air-travel-related GHG emissions could be made. ... This does not mean non-attendance" (Reay, 2004), since modern Internet communications are now ubiquitous and remote audio/visual participation.
For example, by 2003 Access Grid technology had already successfully hosted several international conferences. A particular example is the large American Geophysical Union's annual meeting, which has used live streaming for several years. This provides live streams and recordings of keynotes, named lectures, and oral sessions, and provides opportunities to submit questions and interact with authors and peers.
Following the live-stream, the recording of each session is posted online within 24 hours.
Some convention centers have begun to take direct action in reducing the impact of the conventions they host.
One example is the Moscone Center in San Francisco, which has a very aggressive recycling program, a large solar power system, and other programs aimed at reducing impact and increasing efficiency.
Local communities:
Local communities benefit from sustainable tourism through economic development, job creation, and infrastructure development. Tourism revenues bring economic growth and prosperity to attractive tourist destinations, which can raise the standard of living in destination communities.
Sustainable tourism operators commit themselves to creating jobs for local community members. An increase in tourism revenue to an area acts as a driver for the development of increased infrastructure.
As tourist demands increase in a destination, a more robust infrastructure is needed to support the needs of both the tourism industry and the local community. A 2009 study of rural operators throughout the province of British Columbia, Canada found "an overall strong 'pro-sustainability' attitude among respondents.
Dominant barriers identified were lack of available money to invest, lack of incentive programs, other business priorities, and limited access to suppliers of sustainable products, with the most common recommendation being the need for incentive programs to encourage businesses to become more sustainable."
International organizations:
The Global Sustainable Tourism Council (GSTC) serves as the international body for fostering increased knowledge and understanding of sustainable tourism practices, promoting the adoption of universal sustainable tourism principles, and building demand for sustainable travel.
GSTC launched the GSTC Criteria, a global standard for sustainable travel and tourism, which includes criteria and performance indicators for destinations, tour operators and hotels. The GSTC Criteria serve as the international standard for certification agencies (the organizations that would inspect a tourism product, and certify them as a sustainable company).
The GSTC Criteria has the potential to be applied to national parks to improve the standards of operation and increase sustainability efforts in the United States.
Sustainable transport and mobility:
Further information: sustainable transport and environmental impact of aviation
Tourism can be related to travel for leisure, business and visiting friends and relatives and can also include means of transportation related to tourism. Without travel there is no tourism, so the concept of sustainable tourism is tightly linked to a concept of sustainable transport.
Two relevant considerations are tourism's reliance on fossil fuels and tourism's effect on climate change. 72 percent of tourism's CO2 emissions come from transportation, 24 percent from accommodations, and 4 percent from local activities.
Aviation accounts for 55% of those transportation CO2 emissions (or 40% of tourism's total). However, when considering the impact of all greenhouse gas emissions, of condensation trails and induced cirrus clouds, aviation alone could account for up to 75% of tourism's climate impact.
The International Air Transport Association (IATA) considers an annual increase in aviation fuel efficiency of 2 percent per year through 2050 to be realistic. However, both Airbus and Boeing expect the passenger-kilometers of air transport to increase by about 5 percent yearly through at least 2020, overwhelming any efficiency gains.
By 2050, with other economic sectors having greatly reduced their CO2 emissions, tourism is likely to be generating 40 percent of global carbon emissions. The main cause is an increase in the average distance traveled by tourists, which for many years has been increasing at a faster rate than the number of trips taken.
"Sustainable transportation is now established as the critical issue confronting a global tourism industry that is palpably unsustainable, and aviation lies at the heart of this issue."
The European Tourism Manifesto has also called for an acceleration in the development of cycling infrastructure to boost local clean energy travel. Deployment of non-motorized infrastructures and the re-use of abandoned transport infrastructure (such as disused railways) for cycling and walking has been proposed.
Connectivity between these non-motorized routes (greenways, cycle routes) and main attractions nearby (i.e. Natura2000 sites, UNESCO sites, etc.) has also been requested. It has also called for sufficient and predictable rail infrastructure funding, and a focus on digital multimodal practices, including end-to-end ticketing (such as Interrail), all of which are in-line with the EU's modal shift goal.
Global tourism accounts for about eight percent of global greenhouse gas emissions. This percentage takes into account airline transportation as well as other significant environmental and social impacts that are not always beneficial to local communities and their economies.
Challenges:
Further information: Impacts of tourism
Displacement and resettlement:
In places where there was no tourism prior to tourism companies' arrival, displacement and resettlement of local communities is a common issue.
For example, the Maasai tribes in Tanzania have been a victim of this problem. After the second World War, conservationists moved into the areas where the Maasai tribes lived, with the intent to make such areas accessible to tourists and to preserve the areas' natural beauty and ecology.
This was often achieved through establishing national parks and conservation areas. It has been claimed that Maasai activities did not threaten the wildlife and the knowledge was blurred by "colonial disdain" and misunderstandings of savannah wildlife. As the Maasai have been displaced, the area within the Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA) has been adapted to allow easier access for tourists through the construction of campsites and tracks, as well as the removal of stone objects such as stones for souvenirs.
Environmental impacts:
This section is an excerpt from Impacts of tourism § Environmental impacts.
Ecotourism, nature tourism, wildlife tourism, and adventure tourism take place in environments such as rain forests, high alpine, wilderness, lakes and rivers, coastlines and marine environments, as well as rural villages and coastline resorts.
Peoples' desire for more authentic and challenging experiences results in their destinations becoming more remote, to the few remaining pristine and natural environments left on the planet.
The positive impact of this can be an increased awareness of environmental stewardship. The negative impact can be a destruction of the very experience that people are seeking.
There are direct and indirect impacts, immediate and long-term impacts, and there are impacts that are both proximal and distal to the tourist destination. These impacts can be separated into three categories: facility impacts, tourist activities, and the transit effect.
Environmental sustainability focuses on the overall viability and health of ecological systems. Natural resource degradation, pollution, and loss of biodiversity are detrimental because they increase vulnerability, undermine system health, and reduce resilience.
More research is needed to assess the impacts of tourism on natural capital and ecosystem services. Interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary research is needed to address how the tourism industry impacts waste and wastewater treatment, pollination, food security, raw materials, genetic resources, oil and natural gas regulation and ecosystem functions such as soil retention and nutrient recycling.
Improvements:
Management aspects:
Promotion of sustainable tourism practices are often connected to the management of tourist locations by locals or the community. This form of tourism is based on the premise that the people living next to a resource are the ones best suited to protecting it. This means that the tourism activities and businesses are developed and operated by local community members, and certainly with their consent and support.
Sustainable tourism typically involves the conservation of resources that are capitalized upon for tourism purposes. Locals run the businesses and are responsible for promoting the conservation messages to protect their environment.
Community-based sustainable tourism (CBST) associates the success of the sustainability of the ecotourism location to the management practices of the communities who are directly or indirectly dependent on the location for their livelihoods.
A salient feature of CBST is that local knowledge is usually utilized alongside wide general frameworks of ecotourism business models. This allows the participation of locals at the management level and typically allows a more intimate understanding of the environment.
The use of local knowledge also means an easier entry level into a tourism industry for locals whose jobs or livelihoods are affected by the use of their environment as tourism locations.
Environmentally sustainable development crucially depends on the presence of local support for a project. It has also been noted that in order for success projects must provide direct benefits for the local community.
However, recent research has found that economic linkages generated by CBST may only be sporadic, and that the linkages with agriculture are negatively affected by seasonality and by the small scale of the cultivated areas. This means that CBST may only have small-scale positive effects for these communities.
Partnerships between governments and tourism agencies with smaller communities are not particularly effective because of the disparity in aims between the two groups, i.e. true sustainability versus mass tourism for maximum profit.
In Honduras, such a divergence can be demonstrated where consultants from the World Bank and officials from the Institute of tourism wanted to set up a selection of 5-star hotels near various ecotourism destinations. But another operating approach in the region by USAID and APROECOH (an ecotourism association) promotes community-based efforts which have trained many local Hondurans. Grassroot organizations were more successful in Honduras.
As part of a development strategy:
Developing countries are especially interested in international tourism, and many believe it brings countries a large selection of economic benefits including employment opportunities, small business development, and increased in payments of foreign exchange.
Many assume that more money is gained through developing luxury goods and services in spite of the fact that this increases a countries dependency on imported products, foreign investments and expatriate skills.
This classic 'trickle down' financial strategy rarely makes its way down to brings its benefits down to small businesses.
It has been said that the economic benefits of large-scale tourism are not doubted but that the backpacker or budget traveler sector is often neglected as a potential growth sector by developing countries governments. This sector brings significant non-economic benefits which could help to empower and educate the communities involved in this sector.
"Aiming 'low' builds upon the skills of the local population, promotes self-reliance, and develops the confidence of community members in dealing with outsiders, all signs of empowerment" and all of which aid in the overall development of a nation.
In the 1990s, international tourism was seen as an import potential growth sector for many countries, particularly in developing countries as many of the world's most beautiful and 'untouched' places are located in developing countries.
Prior to the 1960s, studies tended to assume that the extension of the tourism industry to LEDCs was a good thing. In the 1970s, this changed as academics started to take a much more negative view on tourism's consequences, particularly criticizing the industry as an effective contributor towards development.
International tourism is a volatile industry with visitors quick to abandon destinations that were formerly popular because of threats to health or security.
Tourism is seen as a resilient industry and bounces back quickly after severe setbacks, like natural disasters, September 11th attacks and COVID-19. Many call for more attention to "lessons learned" from these setbacks to improve mitigation measures that could be taken in advance.
Trends:
Impacts of COVID-19 pandemic
Further information: Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on tourism
Due to COVID-19, an unprecedented decrease of 65% took place in international tourist numbers in first half of 2020 as compared to 2019. Countries around the world closed their borders and introduced travel restrictions in response to the pandemic.
The situation is expected to gradually improve in 2021 depending upon lifting of travel restrictions, availability of COVID-19 vaccine and return of traveler confidence.
Furthermore, the current COVID-19 pandemic has made many sustainability challenges of tourism clearer. Therefore sustainable tourism scholars call for a transformation of tourism. They state that the COVID-19 pandemic has created a window of opportunity, in which stakeholders can shift towards more sustainable practices and rethink systems.
The system cannot be sustained in its current form. The constant aim for economic growth goes at the expense of Earth's ecosystems, wildlife, and well-being. The gap between rich and poor is growing every year, and the pandemic has spurred this even further. Our current systems are often in place for the few, leaving the many behind.
This is no different for the global and local tourism systems. Therefore, tourism scholars argue we should learn from the pandemic. "COVID-19 provides striking lessons to the tourism industry, policy makers and tourism researchers about the effects of global change.
The challenge is now to collectively learn from this global tragedy to accelerate the transformation of sustainable tourism".
Technology is seen as a partial solution to the disruptive impacts of pandemics like COVID-19. Although it can be counterproductive for sustainable tourism if it is utilized for data collection that may be misused for mass tourism, technology and digital advancements have provided the tools necessary for e-tourism to evolve and become more valuable amidst the pandemic.
Scholars argue that "surrogate tourism" will allow tourists to remain home while employing local guides at the destination to facilitate personalized, interactive, real-time tours (PIRTs).
While these options will not take the place of conventional travel experience, there is a market for PIRTs especially for persons with disabilities and the elderly, and for the "sustainable citizen who wishes to minimize their impact on the planet".
History:
Historically, the movement toward sustainable tourism through responsible tourism emerged following the environmental awareness that rose out of the 1960s and 1970s amid a growing phenomenon of "mass tourism". In 1973, the European Travel Commission initiated a multilateral effort to advance environmentally sound tourism and development.
Jost Krippendorf, a former professor at the University of Bern, is considered to be one of the first individuals to express ideas about sustainable tourism. In his book "The landscape eaters", Krippendorf argues for “sanfter turismus”, or "soft tourism". The South
African national tourism policy (1996) used the term "responsible tourism" and mentioned the well-being of the local community as a main factor.
In 2014, the Cape Town Declaration on Responsible Tourism focused on the role of business in promoting responsible tourism. While further research is needed to understand the impacts of responsible tourism, a study conducted in 2017 found that well-managed responsible tourism practices were beneficial to local communities.
Examples:
Forest tourism:
The Haliburton Sustainable Forest in central Ontario, Canada is a sustainably managed and privately owned 100,000 forest that supports both tourism and the logging industry.
Based on a 100-year plan for sustaining the forest, the Haliburton Sustainable Forest has sources of income with tourism and logging that contribute to the long-term stability of the local economy and to the health of the forest.
In just over four decades the forest has been transformed from a run-down forestry holding to a flourishing, multi-use operation with benefits to owners, employees and the public at large as well as the environment.
Sustainable touristic cities:
In 2019, Machu Picchu in Peru was "recognized as Latin America's first 100% sustainable city through the management of its waste".
Organizations:
Biosphere Tourism is an organization that certifies industry players who are able to balance sociocultural, economic and ecological factors within a tourism destination.
The TreadRight Foundation (The Travel Corporation's not-for-profit foundation) has been recognized in 2019 by the UNWTO's annual awards for its pioneering work in sustainability.
Geosport:
Geosport is one of the latest concepts in the field of tourism, mainly focusing on promoting spaces, sports heritage sites, and routes as means of attracting tourists through sustainability and sustainable management measures.
Geosport combines local cultural heritage, natural resources, and destination branding with sport. It allows visitors to explore the local cultural and natural heritage more deeply. By enhancing the communication between people and the environment, the concepts of sustainable development and environmental protection are subtly promoted.
See also:
- BEST Education Network
- International Year of Sustainable Tourism for Development
- Journal of Sustainable Tourism
- Mohonk Agreement
- World Tourism Day
- Overtourism
- International Centre for Responsible Tourism
- Linking Biodiversity Conservation and Sustainable Tourism at World Heritage Sites
- UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Division for Sustainable Development
- Cape Town Declaration on Responsible Tourism
- Global Sustainable Tourism Council
Sustainable event management
Sustainable event management (also known as event greening) is event management with particular concern for environmental, economic and social issues.
Sustainability in event management incorporates socially and environmentally responsible decision making into the planning, organisation and implementation of, and participation in, an event.
- It involves including sustainable development principles and practices in all levels of event organisation, and aims to ensure that an event is hosted responsibly.
- It represents the total package of interventions at an event, and needs to be done in an integrated manner. Event greening should start at the inception of the project, and should involve all the key role players, such as clients, organisers, venues, sub-contractors and suppliers.
Sport events:
Main article: Green sport event
Event greening is however not only limited to sports events, and other examples include:
- the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD),
- Johannesburg 2002,
- and UNFCCC 15th Conference of the Parties (COP15) held in Copenhagen in 2010.
Monitoring and evaluation:
Monitoring and evaluation is an essential component of event greening, and should be used to make continuous improvement. A detailed plan needs to be in place to ensure that information is gathered on all aspects of the event – before, during, and also after the event.
This ensures that information is available to understand the effects of greening interventions (e.g. to what extent was water used, and how did water-saving measures reduce water use), as well as the potential improvements to future event-greening initiatives.
With large events it is best to ensure an independent report, which complies with international standards, such as the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI).
The GRI Event Organizers Supplement provides organizations in the sector with a tailored version of GRI's Reporting Guidelines. It includes the original Guidelines, which set out the Reporting Principles, Disclosures on Management Approach and Performance Indicators for economic, environmental and social issues.
The Event Organizers Supplement's capture the issues that matter most for event organizers to be reported on:
- Site selection
- Transport of attendees
- Recruiting and training of the event workforce, participants and volunteers
- Sourcing of materials, supplies and services
- Managing impacts on communities, natural environments, and local and global economies.
- Planning and managing potential legacies
- Accessibility of an event
Germany's giz gives a similar lists of the fields of activity which must be organized and monitored:
- Guest management
- Mobility (sustainable transport)
- Event venues and accommodation
- Sustainable procurement
- Catering
- Energy consumption and climate
- Waste management
The British Standard (BS 8901) has been developed specifically for the events industry with a purpose of helping the industry to operate in a more sustainable manner. The standard defines the requirements for a sustainability event management system to ensure an enduring and balanced approach to economic activity, environmental responsibility and social progress relating to events.
It requires organizations to identify and understand the effects that their activities have on the environment, on society and on the economy both within the organization and the wider economy; and put measures in place to minimize the negative effects. These standards will however be replaced by the International Standard (ISO 20121) for Sustainability Management Systems.
Steps to Planning A Sustainable Event:
Standards for Sustainable Events:
Planning a sustainable event with ease requires certain standards or barometers. ISO 202121 is one such international standard for sustainable event management. This docket provides a strategic framework for planning and executing sustainable events.
These standards help organisers better understand the environmental, social and economical impact of events. This helps ensure that all events are organised without causing negative environmental impacts or effecting sustainability.
ISO 202121 aims to eliminate the carbon footprint of events by reducing waste generation, promoting energy conservation, encouraging green and sustainable transportation and using sustainable materials and products. ISO 20121 guidelines are beneficial to event organisers as it allows them to increase sustainability, reduce costs, improve credibility and reputation and engage stakeholders.
See also:
- Event management
- Greenwashing
- ISO 20121 Sustainable Event Management at the British Standards Institution
- Sustainable Event Alliance
- Sustainable Event Management: A Practical Guide
Travel Agency including Online Travel Agencies
- YouTube Video: Pros and Cons of Using a Booking Site vs a Travel Agent | Tips for Booking Travel
- YouTube Video: The Travel Agent Business Set Ups You Need to Know
- YouTube Video: 5 Mistakes to Avoid Before a Long Flight | (#4 is the WORST)
Click here for a partial listing of Online Travel Agencies
A travel agency is a private retailer or public service that provides travel and tourism-related services to the general public on behalf of accommodation or travel suppliers to offer different kinds of travelling packages for each destination.
Travel agencies can provide outdoor recreation, arranging logistics for luggage and medical items delivery for travellers upon request, public transport timetables, car rentals, and bureau de change services.
Travel agencies can also serve as general sales agents for airlines that do not have offices in a specific region. A travel agency's main function is to act as an agent, selling travel products and services on behalf of a supplier. They are also called Travel Advisors. They do not keep inventory in-hand unless they have pre-booked hotel rooms or cabins on a cruise ship for a group travel event such as a wedding, honeymoon, or other group event.
Business model:
Travel agencies often receive commissions and other benefits and incentives from providers or may charge a fee to the end users. Hotel owners and tour operators typically pay a higher commission rate to travel agencies, whereas airlines typically pay a low commission.
The customer is normally not made aware of how much the travel agent is earning in commissions and other benefits. A 2016 survey of 1,193 travel agents in the United States found that on average 78% of their revenue was from commissions and 22% was generated from fees.
Travel technology:
Travel agencies use the services of the major computer reservations systems, also known as global distribution systems (GDS), including: Amadeus CRS, Galileo GDS, Sabre, and Worldspan, which is a subsidiary of Travelport, which allow for comparison and sorting of hotel and flight rates with multiple companies.
Bookings made via travel agents, including online travel agents, may or may not be confirmed instantly. Unlike online travel agencies, metasearch engines and scraper sites, such as Skyscanner, Kayak.com, Rome2rio, and TripAdvisor, may or may not have their own booking engine, and instead provide results for search queries and then divert traffic to service providers or online travel agencies for booking.
Travel agents may also work with airline consolidators.
Some companies use technology to promote sustainable tourism and bring carbon-neutrality.
Types of agencies:
Booking Holdings and Expedia Group, both online travel agencies, are the largest travel agencies on the list of top earning travel companies.
Travel agencies can be multinational companies, referred to as "multiples" in the United Kingdom. They can also be medium-sized organizations, referred to as "miniples" in the United Kingdom, or can be independent, small companies. They can be structured as a limited liability company, a sole proprietorship, or can be set up as a host, franchising, or consortium structure, such as in the case of CWT.
A traditional travel agent may work for a travel agency or work freelance. Helloworld Travel is an example of a franchised travel agency, giving agents access to internal systems for product and bookings. While most point-to-point travel is now booked online, traditional agents specialize in niche markets such as corporate travel, luxury travel, cruises, complicated and important trips, and specialty trips.
Other niche markets include travelers with disabilities, travelers over the age of 60, women traveling alone, LGBT tourism, the needs of residents in an upmarket commuter town or suburb, or a particular group interested in a similar activity, such as a sport.
Examples include:
Licensing:
In many countries, all travel agencies are required to be licensed by the International Air Transport Association (IATA). Many are also bonded and represented by IATA, and, for those that issue air tickets, the Air Travel Organisers' Licensing (ATOL) in the United Kingdom, and the Airlines Reporting Corporation in the United States also serve those purposes.
ABTA – The Travel Association the Association of Canadian Travel Agencies (ACTA) The American Society of Travel Advisors (ASTA), represent travel agencies in the United Kingdom, Canada, and the United States respectively.
History;
In 1758, Cox & Kings became the first travel agency in modern history.
In 1840, the Abreu Agency was established in Porto by Bernardo Abreu, becoming the world's first agency to open its services to the public.
In 1841, Thomas Cook, a Baptist preacher who believed that alcohol was to blame for social problems, reached an agreement with the Midland Railway to organize the transportation of 500 members of his temperance movement from the Leicester Campbell Street railway station to a rally in Loughborough in exchange for a commission.
He formed Thomas Cook & Son, which later became The Thomas Cook Group. It filed bankruptcy and underwent liquidation in 2019.
In 1871, Dean and Dawson was founded in the United Kingdom and in the 1950s, it was acquired by Thomas Cook.
In 1870, the Polytechnic Touring Association was founded in the United Kingdom.
In 1887, Walter T. Brownell established Brownell Travel, the first travel agency in the United States, and led 10 travelers on a European tour setting sail from New York on the SS Devonia.
In 1895, Baldwins Travel was founded by Alfred K Baldwin, originally a printer, bookbinder and publisher in Tunbridge Wells. Baldwins begins selling railway tickets and helping friends to travel to Europe and beyond. News spreads and the former printers slowly build a strong side-line in travel at the back of the Baldwins Stationery shop at 27 Grosvenor Road.
Originally, travel agencies largely catered to middle and upper-class customers but they became more commonplace with the development of commercial aviation.
In 1923, after being treated badly by a British travel agency, K. P. Chen formed what became the China Travel Service, the first travel agency in China.
The industry suffered during World War II. However, the Post–World War II economic expansion in mass-market package tours resulted in the proliferation of travel agencies catering to the working class.
In 1905, Nippon Travel Agency became the first travel agency in Japan.
In 1929, Intourist was formed as the official state travel agency of the Soviet Union, with the goal of convincing outsiders to visit the country.
During the Cold War, travel agents were used by people from Western countries to travel behind the Iron Curtain.
In 1951, the precursor to Helloworld Travel became one of the first travel agencies in Australia.
In 1955, Henderson Travel Service became the first black-owned travel company and the first to take large groups of black tourists to Africa.
In the early 1980s, American Airlines' Sabre unit created a direct-to-consumer booking tool for flights, hotels and cars called eAAsySabre.
In 1989, with the liberalization of travel for South Koreans, Mode Tour became the first travel agency in the country.
In 1991, Hotel Reservations Network, the precursor of Hotels.com, was founded. At first, hotels did not pay much in commissions. With the advent of the internet, travel agencies migrated online and underwent disintermediation by the reduction in costs caused by removing layers from the package holiday distribution network.
In 1994, Travelweb.com launched as the first online directory of hotels.
In 1995, Internet Travel Network sold the first airline ticket via the World Wide Web.
In October 1996, Expedia.com, funded with hundreds of millions of dollars by Microsoft launched as the first large online travel agency.
At the same time, Cheapflights started as a listing service for flight deals from consolidators.
In 1998, Lastminute.com was founded in the United Kingdom.
In 1999, European airlines began eliminating or reducing commissions, while Singapore Airlines did so in parts of Asia. In 2002, several airlines in the United States did the same, which led to an unsuccessful lawsuit alleging collusion among the airlines, that was decided on appeal in 2009.
In 2007, the launch of the iPhone and related mobile apps increased travel bookings made online.
In 2008, the launch of Airbnb created an online marketplace for spare bedrooms and apartments.
In 2011, the launch of HotelTonight highlighted instantaneous same-day hotel room booking.
In 2021, travel agency Baldwins Travel Group, which was founded in 1895 was bought by business group Inc & Co.
Outlook:
According to the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, in 2019, there were 82,000 people who worked as travel agents for their full-time jobs. That number is projected to decrease by 26% over the next 10 years.
However, job prospects should be best for travel agents who specialize in specific destinations or particular types of travelers. In 2019, the median salary was $40,660 per year, compared to the median annual wage for all workers which was $39,810.
Several reports show that the number of people using travel agents to book travel has been increasing.
See also:
A travel agency is a private retailer or public service that provides travel and tourism-related services to the general public on behalf of accommodation or travel suppliers to offer different kinds of travelling packages for each destination.
Travel agencies can provide outdoor recreation, arranging logistics for luggage and medical items delivery for travellers upon request, public transport timetables, car rentals, and bureau de change services.
Travel agencies can also serve as general sales agents for airlines that do not have offices in a specific region. A travel agency's main function is to act as an agent, selling travel products and services on behalf of a supplier. They are also called Travel Advisors. They do not keep inventory in-hand unless they have pre-booked hotel rooms or cabins on a cruise ship for a group travel event such as a wedding, honeymoon, or other group event.
Business model:
Travel agencies often receive commissions and other benefits and incentives from providers or may charge a fee to the end users. Hotel owners and tour operators typically pay a higher commission rate to travel agencies, whereas airlines typically pay a low commission.
The customer is normally not made aware of how much the travel agent is earning in commissions and other benefits. A 2016 survey of 1,193 travel agents in the United States found that on average 78% of their revenue was from commissions and 22% was generated from fees.
Travel technology:
Travel agencies use the services of the major computer reservations systems, also known as global distribution systems (GDS), including: Amadeus CRS, Galileo GDS, Sabre, and Worldspan, which is a subsidiary of Travelport, which allow for comparison and sorting of hotel and flight rates with multiple companies.
Bookings made via travel agents, including online travel agents, may or may not be confirmed instantly. Unlike online travel agencies, metasearch engines and scraper sites, such as Skyscanner, Kayak.com, Rome2rio, and TripAdvisor, may or may not have their own booking engine, and instead provide results for search queries and then divert traffic to service providers or online travel agencies for booking.
Travel agents may also work with airline consolidators.
Some companies use technology to promote sustainable tourism and bring carbon-neutrality.
Types of agencies:
Booking Holdings and Expedia Group, both online travel agencies, are the largest travel agencies on the list of top earning travel companies.
Travel agencies can be multinational companies, referred to as "multiples" in the United Kingdom. They can also be medium-sized organizations, referred to as "miniples" in the United Kingdom, or can be independent, small companies. They can be structured as a limited liability company, a sole proprietorship, or can be set up as a host, franchising, or consortium structure, such as in the case of CWT.
A traditional travel agent may work for a travel agency or work freelance. Helloworld Travel is an example of a franchised travel agency, giving agents access to internal systems for product and bookings. While most point-to-point travel is now booked online, traditional agents specialize in niche markets such as corporate travel, luxury travel, cruises, complicated and important trips, and specialty trips.
Other niche markets include travelers with disabilities, travelers over the age of 60, women traveling alone, LGBT tourism, the needs of residents in an upmarket commuter town or suburb, or a particular group interested in a similar activity, such as a sport.
Examples include:
- StudentUniverse and STA Travel, which specialize in youth travel,
- or CWT, which caters to corporate travel. Many use remote work to reduce overhead or provide concierge services. Agents can act as "travel consultants" with extensive knowledge of destination regions and specialize in topics like nautical tourism or cultural tourism.
- Many traditional agents prefer the term "travel advisor" as opposed to "travel agent" to emphasize their advice, expertise, and connections that are of great value.
- There are also direct-to-local booking agencies that connect users with travel experts in the country they plan to visit instead of their travel agents in their country of residence.
- Outbound travel agencies offer multi-destinations;
- inbound travel agencies are based in the destination and deliver an expertise on that location.
Licensing:
In many countries, all travel agencies are required to be licensed by the International Air Transport Association (IATA). Many are also bonded and represented by IATA, and, for those that issue air tickets, the Air Travel Organisers' Licensing (ATOL) in the United Kingdom, and the Airlines Reporting Corporation in the United States also serve those purposes.
ABTA – The Travel Association the Association of Canadian Travel Agencies (ACTA) The American Society of Travel Advisors (ASTA), represent travel agencies in the United Kingdom, Canada, and the United States respectively.
History;
In 1758, Cox & Kings became the first travel agency in modern history.
In 1840, the Abreu Agency was established in Porto by Bernardo Abreu, becoming the world's first agency to open its services to the public.
In 1841, Thomas Cook, a Baptist preacher who believed that alcohol was to blame for social problems, reached an agreement with the Midland Railway to organize the transportation of 500 members of his temperance movement from the Leicester Campbell Street railway station to a rally in Loughborough in exchange for a commission.
He formed Thomas Cook & Son, which later became The Thomas Cook Group. It filed bankruptcy and underwent liquidation in 2019.
In 1871, Dean and Dawson was founded in the United Kingdom and in the 1950s, it was acquired by Thomas Cook.
In 1870, the Polytechnic Touring Association was founded in the United Kingdom.
In 1887, Walter T. Brownell established Brownell Travel, the first travel agency in the United States, and led 10 travelers on a European tour setting sail from New York on the SS Devonia.
In 1895, Baldwins Travel was founded by Alfred K Baldwin, originally a printer, bookbinder and publisher in Tunbridge Wells. Baldwins begins selling railway tickets and helping friends to travel to Europe and beyond. News spreads and the former printers slowly build a strong side-line in travel at the back of the Baldwins Stationery shop at 27 Grosvenor Road.
Originally, travel agencies largely catered to middle and upper-class customers but they became more commonplace with the development of commercial aviation.
In 1923, after being treated badly by a British travel agency, K. P. Chen formed what became the China Travel Service, the first travel agency in China.
The industry suffered during World War II. However, the Post–World War II economic expansion in mass-market package tours resulted in the proliferation of travel agencies catering to the working class.
In 1905, Nippon Travel Agency became the first travel agency in Japan.
In 1929, Intourist was formed as the official state travel agency of the Soviet Union, with the goal of convincing outsiders to visit the country.
During the Cold War, travel agents were used by people from Western countries to travel behind the Iron Curtain.
In 1951, the precursor to Helloworld Travel became one of the first travel agencies in Australia.
In 1955, Henderson Travel Service became the first black-owned travel company and the first to take large groups of black tourists to Africa.
In the early 1980s, American Airlines' Sabre unit created a direct-to-consumer booking tool for flights, hotels and cars called eAAsySabre.
In 1989, with the liberalization of travel for South Koreans, Mode Tour became the first travel agency in the country.
In 1991, Hotel Reservations Network, the precursor of Hotels.com, was founded. At first, hotels did not pay much in commissions. With the advent of the internet, travel agencies migrated online and underwent disintermediation by the reduction in costs caused by removing layers from the package holiday distribution network.
In 1994, Travelweb.com launched as the first online directory of hotels.
In 1995, Internet Travel Network sold the first airline ticket via the World Wide Web.
In October 1996, Expedia.com, funded with hundreds of millions of dollars by Microsoft launched as the first large online travel agency.
At the same time, Cheapflights started as a listing service for flight deals from consolidators.
In 1998, Lastminute.com was founded in the United Kingdom.
In 1999, European airlines began eliminating or reducing commissions, while Singapore Airlines did so in parts of Asia. In 2002, several airlines in the United States did the same, which led to an unsuccessful lawsuit alleging collusion among the airlines, that was decided on appeal in 2009.
In 2007, the launch of the iPhone and related mobile apps increased travel bookings made online.
In 2008, the launch of Airbnb created an online marketplace for spare bedrooms and apartments.
In 2011, the launch of HotelTonight highlighted instantaneous same-day hotel room booking.
In 2021, travel agency Baldwins Travel Group, which was founded in 1895 was bought by business group Inc & Co.
Outlook:
According to the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, in 2019, there were 82,000 people who worked as travel agents for their full-time jobs. That number is projected to decrease by 26% over the next 10 years.
However, job prospects should be best for travel agents who specialize in specific destinations or particular types of travelers. In 2019, the median salary was $40,660 per year, compared to the median annual wage for all workers which was $39,810.
Several reports show that the number of people using travel agents to book travel has been increasing.
See also:
Tourist Attractions, including a List of Tourist Attractions
- YouTube Video: The Grand Tour of the Taj Mahal, India
- YouTube Video: Eiffel Tower in PARIS
- YouTube Video: Here’s what it’s like inside St. Louis' Gateway Arch
Tourist attraction
A tourist attraction is a place of interest that tourists visit, typically for its inherent or an exhibited natural or cultural value, historical significance, natural or built beauty, offering leisure and amusement.
Types of Tourist Attraction:
Places of natural beauty such as: are examples of traditional tourist attractions which people may visit.
Cultural tourist attractions can include:
Creative art and crafts workshops are the object of cultural niches like industrial tourism and creative tourism. Many tourist attractions are also landmarks. But sports events such as a soccer game, Formula 1 race or sailing regatta can also attract tourists.
Tourists' expectations when visiting a particular place are related to several features of the chosen destination: e.g.,
These features attract people to the destination and contribute to the overall experience of the trip. The ultimate primary purpose of attractions is to attract the customer's attention so that they can come to a specific location and explore the various attractions on vacation.
In the travel and tourism industry, attractions therefore play a particularly important role as this attracts tourists from all over the world.
Tourist attractions are also created to capitalize on legends such as a supposed UFO crash site near Roswell, New Mexico and the alleged Loch Ness monster sightings in Scotland.
Ethnic communities may become tourist attractions, such as Chinatowns in the United States and the black British neighborhood of Brixton in London, England.
Tourists also look for special local culinary experiences such as street kitchens in Asian metropolises or the coffeehouse culture in Central Europe.
In particular, cultural property and the individual places of the UNESCO World Heritage Site have developed into tourist attractions. If too many tourists frequent individual places, this can lead to environmental pollution and resistance from the local population, such as in Barcelona or Venice. With regard to this whole subject, there are already lists of destinations that are not recommended to tourists.
There are innumerable lists and reviews of tourist attractions. Visitor statistics, cultural significance, beauty or age are used and these always reflect the author's personal assessments. Sometimes it is particularly emphasized that this particular tourist attraction has not yet been in the focus of the international tourism industry.
Some of the sights are internationally known or target the national or local market. Some attractions are reserved for the local population or are rarely advertised because the main traffic routes and main airports are too far away.
In the United States, owners and marketers of attractions advertise tourist attractions on billboards along the sides of highways and roadways, especially in remote areas. Tourist attractions often distribute free promotional brochures to be displayed in rest areas, information centers, fast food restaurants, and motel rooms or lobbies.
While some tourist attractions provide visitors a memorable experience for a reasonable admission charge or even for free, others may be of low quality and overprice their goods and services (such as admission, food, and souvenirs) in order to profit excessively from tourists. Such places are commonly known as tourist traps.
Within cities, rides on boats and sightseeing buses are sometimes popular.
___________________________________________________________________________
Example Tourist Attractions
Click on the blue hyperlinks below for viewing each Example Tourist attraction: ___________________________________________________________________________
Tourist destination:
A tourist destination is a city, town, or other area that is significantly dependent on revenues from tourism, or "a country, state, region, city, or town which is marketed or markets itself as a place for tourists to visit". It may contain one or more tourist attractions and possibly some "tourist traps".
For examples:
France, the United States, and Spain were the three most popular international destinations in 2017. The total number of international travelers arriving in those countries was about 234 million, contributing 8.9%, 7.7%, and 14.9%, respectively, to the total GDP of those countries.
Although some years back, Africa was lean on tourism, the continent is currently regarded as the second fastest growing tourism region with over 67 million tourists visits to Africa in 2018. Ethiopia, with a growth rate of 48.6% in 2018, is at the top of the list of African tourist centers.
Other tourist locations in Africa include:
From the tourism industry supply perspective, a destination is usually defined by a geo-political boundary, and destination marketing is most commonly funded by governments.
From the traveler perspective, a destination might be perceived quite differently.
Economic impact and protection:
Tourism generates substantial economic benefits for both host countries and tourists' home countries. Especially in developing countries, one of the primary motivations for a region to promote itself as a tourism destination is the expected economic benefit.
According to the World Tourism Organization, 698 million people travelled to a foreign country in 2000, spending more than US$478 billion. International tourism receipts combined with passenger transport currently total more than US$575 billion – making tourism the world's number one export earner.
Tourist attractions can:
In the event of war, many tourist attractions are a special goal in order to cause lasting damage to the enemy or to finance the war. International attempts are therefore made to protect and preserve these economic and cultural foundations of a community, city or country.
There is intensive cooperation between the United Nations, UNESCO and Blue Shield International on the protection of cultural goods and UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
However, cooperation between organizations and state authorities is not enough to prevent destruction, robbery and looting. The founding president of Blue Shield International Karl von Habsburg summed it up with the words: “Without the local community and without the local participants, that would be completely impossible”.
See also:
A tourist attraction is a place of interest that tourists visit, typically for its inherent or an exhibited natural or cultural value, historical significance, natural or built beauty, offering leisure and amusement.
Types of Tourist Attraction:
Places of natural beauty such as: are examples of traditional tourist attractions which people may visit.
Cultural tourist attractions can include:
- historical places,
- sites of significant historic event,
- monuments,
- ancient temples,
- zoos,
- aquaria,
- museums and art galleries,
- botanical gardens,
- buildings and structures such as:
- industrial heritage,
- Factory tours,
- cultural events.
- historic trains
- ethnic enclave communities,
- public art such as:
- living history museums,
- theme parks and carnivals,
- bridges,
- skyscrapers,
- former prisons,
- libraries,
- castles,
- and forts,
Creative art and crafts workshops are the object of cultural niches like industrial tourism and creative tourism. Many tourist attractions are also landmarks. But sports events such as a soccer game, Formula 1 race or sailing regatta can also attract tourists.
Tourists' expectations when visiting a particular place are related to several features of the chosen destination: e.g.,
- culture,
- architecture,
- gastronomy,
- infrastructure,
- landscape,
- events,
- shopping,
- etc.
These features attract people to the destination and contribute to the overall experience of the trip. The ultimate primary purpose of attractions is to attract the customer's attention so that they can come to a specific location and explore the various attractions on vacation.
In the travel and tourism industry, attractions therefore play a particularly important role as this attracts tourists from all over the world.
Tourist attractions are also created to capitalize on legends such as a supposed UFO crash site near Roswell, New Mexico and the alleged Loch Ness monster sightings in Scotland.
Ethnic communities may become tourist attractions, such as Chinatowns in the United States and the black British neighborhood of Brixton in London, England.
Tourists also look for special local culinary experiences such as street kitchens in Asian metropolises or the coffeehouse culture in Central Europe.
In particular, cultural property and the individual places of the UNESCO World Heritage Site have developed into tourist attractions. If too many tourists frequent individual places, this can lead to environmental pollution and resistance from the local population, such as in Barcelona or Venice. With regard to this whole subject, there are already lists of destinations that are not recommended to tourists.
There are innumerable lists and reviews of tourist attractions. Visitor statistics, cultural significance, beauty or age are used and these always reflect the author's personal assessments. Sometimes it is particularly emphasized that this particular tourist attraction has not yet been in the focus of the international tourism industry.
Some of the sights are internationally known or target the national or local market. Some attractions are reserved for the local population or are rarely advertised because the main traffic routes and main airports are too far away.
In the United States, owners and marketers of attractions advertise tourist attractions on billboards along the sides of highways and roadways, especially in remote areas. Tourist attractions often distribute free promotional brochures to be displayed in rest areas, information centers, fast food restaurants, and motel rooms or lobbies.
While some tourist attractions provide visitors a memorable experience for a reasonable admission charge or even for free, others may be of low quality and overprice their goods and services (such as admission, food, and souvenirs) in order to profit excessively from tourists. Such places are commonly known as tourist traps.
Within cities, rides on boats and sightseeing buses are sometimes popular.
___________________________________________________________________________
Example Tourist Attractions
Click on the blue hyperlinks below for viewing each Example Tourist attraction: ___________________________________________________________________________
Tourist destination:
A tourist destination is a city, town, or other area that is significantly dependent on revenues from tourism, or "a country, state, region, city, or town which is marketed or markets itself as a place for tourists to visit". It may contain one or more tourist attractions and possibly some "tourist traps".
For examples:
- Fátima town, is a popular tourist destination in Portugal.
- Siem Reap town is a popular tourist destination in Cambodia, mainly owing to its proximity to the Angkor temples.
- The Loire valley, the third tourist destination in France, is a good example of a region marketed and branded as a place for tourists to visit, mainly known for its Châteaux of the Loire valley.
- A tropical island resort is an island or archipelago that depends on tourism as its source of revenue. Examples of popular island resorts include:
France, the United States, and Spain were the three most popular international destinations in 2017. The total number of international travelers arriving in those countries was about 234 million, contributing 8.9%, 7.7%, and 14.9%, respectively, to the total GDP of those countries.
Although some years back, Africa was lean on tourism, the continent is currently regarded as the second fastest growing tourism region with over 67 million tourists visits to Africa in 2018. Ethiopia, with a growth rate of 48.6% in 2018, is at the top of the list of African tourist centers.
Other tourist locations in Africa include:
- Cape Town, South Africa,
- Giza Necropolis, Egypt,
- The Maasai Mara National Reserve, Kenya,
- Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe
- and Zambia.
From the tourism industry supply perspective, a destination is usually defined by a geo-political boundary, and destination marketing is most commonly funded by governments.
From the traveler perspective, a destination might be perceived quite differently.
Economic impact and protection:
Tourism generates substantial economic benefits for both host countries and tourists' home countries. Especially in developing countries, one of the primary motivations for a region to promote itself as a tourism destination is the expected economic benefit.
According to the World Tourism Organization, 698 million people travelled to a foreign country in 2000, spending more than US$478 billion. International tourism receipts combined with passenger transport currently total more than US$575 billion – making tourism the world's number one export earner.
Tourist attractions can:
- contribute to government revenues; direct contributions are generated by taxes on incomes from tourism employment and tourism businesses, and by direct levies on tourists, such as departure taxes
- provide employment
- support conservation of habitats, species and historic sites
- stimulate infrastructure investment
- contribute to local economies
- provide foreign currency earnings
In the event of war, many tourist attractions are a special goal in order to cause lasting damage to the enemy or to finance the war. International attempts are therefore made to protect and preserve these economic and cultural foundations of a community, city or country.
There is intensive cooperation between the United Nations, UNESCO and Blue Shield International on the protection of cultural goods and UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
However, cooperation between organizations and state authorities is not enough to prevent destruction, robbery and looting. The founding president of Blue Shield International Karl von Habsburg summed it up with the words: “Without the local community and without the local participants, that would be completely impossible”.
See also:
Most Popular Tourist Attractions in the United States
TOP: (L) Mount Rushmore; (R) Venice Beach, California
BOTTOM: (L) Kennedy Space Center; (R) St. Louis Gateway Arch
- YouTube Video: New York City Vacation Travel Guide | Expedia
- YouTube Video: Washington D.C. Vacation Travel Guide | Expedia
- YouTube Video: San Francisco Tour Guide
TOP: (L) Mount Rushmore; (R) Venice Beach, California
BOTTOM: (L) Kennedy Space Center; (R) St. Louis Gateway Arch
A tourist attraction is a place of interest where tourists visit, typically for its inherent or an exhibited natural or cultural value, historical significance, natural or built beauty, offering leisure and amusement.
Types of Tourist Attractions:
Places of natural beauty such as beaches, tropical island resorts, national parks, mountains, deserts and forests, are examples of traditional tourist attractions which people may visit.
Cultural tourist attractions can include any of the following:
Factory tours, industrial heritage, creative art and crafts workshops are the object of cultural niches like industrial tourism and creative tourism. Many tourist attractions are also landmarks.
Tourist attractions are also created to capitalize on legends such as a supposed UFO crash site near Roswell, New Mexico and the alleged Loch Ness monster sightings in Scotland. Ghost sightings also make tourist attractions.
Ethnic communities may become tourist attractions, such as Chinatowns in the United States and the black British neighborhood of Brixton in London, England.
In the United States, owners and marketers of attractions advertise tourist attractions on billboards along the sides of highways and roadways, especially in remote areas. Tourist attractions often distribute free promotional brochures to be displayed in rest areas, information centers, fast food restaurants, and motel rooms or lobbies.
While some tourist attractions provide visitors a memorable experience for a reasonable admission charge or even for free, others may be of low quality and overprice their goods and services (such as admission, food, and souvenirs) in order to profit excessively from tourists. Such places are commonly known as tourist traps.
Within cities, rides on boats and sightseeing buses are sometimes popular.
Novelty attractions:
Novelty attractions are oddities such as the "biggest ball of twine" in Cawker City, Kansas, the Corn Palace in Mitchell, South Dakota, or Carhenge in Alliance, Nebraska, where old cars serve in the place of stones in a replica of Stonehenge. Novelty attractions are not limited to the American Midwest, but are part of Midwestern culture.
Tourist destination:
A tourist destination is a city, town, or other area that is dependent to a significant extent on revenues from tourism, or "a country, state, region, city, or town which is marketed or markets itself as a place for tourists to visit".
It may contain one or more tourist attractions and possibly some "tourist traps". Fátima town, for example, is a popular tourist destination in Portugal. Siem Reap town is a popular tourist destination in Cambodia, mainly owing to its proximity to the Angkor temples.
The Loire valley, the third tourist destination in France, is a good example of a region marketed and branded as a place for tourists to visit, mainly known for its Châteaux of the Loire valley.
A tropical island resort is an island or archipelago that depends on tourism as its source of revenue. The Bahamas in the Caribbean, Bali in Indonesia, Phuket in Thailand, Hawaii in the United States, Palawan in the Philippines, Fiji in the Pacific, and Santorini and Ibiza in the Mediterranean are examples of popular island resorts.
France, the United States, and Spain were the three most popular international destinations in 2017. The total number of international travelers arriving in those countries was about 234 million, contributing 8.9%, 7.7%, and 14.9%, respectively, to the total GDP of those countries.
From the tourism industry supply perspective a destination is usually defined by a geo-political boundary, and destination marketing is most commonly funded by governments.
From the traveler perspective, a destination might be perceived quite differently.[
Economic impact:
The tourism generates substantial economic benefits for both host countries and tourists' home countries. Especially in developing countries, one of the primary motivations for a region to promote itself as a tourism destination is the expected economic benefit.
According to the World Tourism Organization, 698 million people traveled to a foreign country in 2000, spending more than US$478 billion. International tourism receipts combined with passenger transport currently total more than US$575 billion – making tourism the world's number one export earner.
Tourist attractions can:
Examples:
Some examples of tourist attractions are:
Tourist attractions in the United States
This is a list of the most popular individual tourist attractions in the United States, lists of tourist attractions organized by subject region, and a selection of other notable tourist attractions and destinations.
Click on any of the following blue hyperlinks for more about Tourist Attractions in the United States:
Types of Tourist Attractions:
Places of natural beauty such as beaches, tropical island resorts, national parks, mountains, deserts and forests, are examples of traditional tourist attractions which people may visit.
Cultural tourist attractions can include any of the following:
- historical places,
- monuments,
- ancient temples,
- zoos,
- aquaria,
- museums and art galleries,
- botanical gardens,
- buildings and structures such as:
- theme parks and carnivals,
- living history museums, public art (e.g., sculptures, statues, murals),
- signs,
- ethnic enclave communities,
- historic trains
- and cultural events.
Factory tours, industrial heritage, creative art and crafts workshops are the object of cultural niches like industrial tourism and creative tourism. Many tourist attractions are also landmarks.
Tourist attractions are also created to capitalize on legends such as a supposed UFO crash site near Roswell, New Mexico and the alleged Loch Ness monster sightings in Scotland. Ghost sightings also make tourist attractions.
Ethnic communities may become tourist attractions, such as Chinatowns in the United States and the black British neighborhood of Brixton in London, England.
In the United States, owners and marketers of attractions advertise tourist attractions on billboards along the sides of highways and roadways, especially in remote areas. Tourist attractions often distribute free promotional brochures to be displayed in rest areas, information centers, fast food restaurants, and motel rooms or lobbies.
While some tourist attractions provide visitors a memorable experience for a reasonable admission charge or even for free, others may be of low quality and overprice their goods and services (such as admission, food, and souvenirs) in order to profit excessively from tourists. Such places are commonly known as tourist traps.
Within cities, rides on boats and sightseeing buses are sometimes popular.
Novelty attractions:
Novelty attractions are oddities such as the "biggest ball of twine" in Cawker City, Kansas, the Corn Palace in Mitchell, South Dakota, or Carhenge in Alliance, Nebraska, where old cars serve in the place of stones in a replica of Stonehenge. Novelty attractions are not limited to the American Midwest, but are part of Midwestern culture.
Tourist destination:
A tourist destination is a city, town, or other area that is dependent to a significant extent on revenues from tourism, or "a country, state, region, city, or town which is marketed or markets itself as a place for tourists to visit".
It may contain one or more tourist attractions and possibly some "tourist traps". Fátima town, for example, is a popular tourist destination in Portugal. Siem Reap town is a popular tourist destination in Cambodia, mainly owing to its proximity to the Angkor temples.
The Loire valley, the third tourist destination in France, is a good example of a region marketed and branded as a place for tourists to visit, mainly known for its Châteaux of the Loire valley.
A tropical island resort is an island or archipelago that depends on tourism as its source of revenue. The Bahamas in the Caribbean, Bali in Indonesia, Phuket in Thailand, Hawaii in the United States, Palawan in the Philippines, Fiji in the Pacific, and Santorini and Ibiza in the Mediterranean are examples of popular island resorts.
France, the United States, and Spain were the three most popular international destinations in 2017. The total number of international travelers arriving in those countries was about 234 million, contributing 8.9%, 7.7%, and 14.9%, respectively, to the total GDP of those countries.
From the tourism industry supply perspective a destination is usually defined by a geo-political boundary, and destination marketing is most commonly funded by governments.
From the traveler perspective, a destination might be perceived quite differently.[
Economic impact:
The tourism generates substantial economic benefits for both host countries and tourists' home countries. Especially in developing countries, one of the primary motivations for a region to promote itself as a tourism destination is the expected economic benefit.
According to the World Tourism Organization, 698 million people traveled to a foreign country in 2000, spending more than US$478 billion. International tourism receipts combined with passenger transport currently total more than US$575 billion – making tourism the world's number one export earner.
Tourist attractions can:
- contribute to government revenues; direct contributions are generated by taxes on incomes from tourism employment and tourism businesses, and by direct levies on tourists, such as departure taxes
- provide employment
- support conservation of habitats, species and historic sites
- stimulate infrastructure investment
- contribute to local economies
- provide foreign currency earnings
Examples:
Some examples of tourist attractions are:
- Forests, national parks and reserves of flora and fauna
- Communities of different ethnicity
- Constructions and structures (old prisons, libraries, castles, bridges, skyscrapers) and historical places
- Cultural and sports events
- Public art
- Art galleries and museums
- Botanical gardens and zoos
- Monuments
- Theme parks
- Historical trains and ships
- Viewpoints
- Restaurants
- Concerts
Tourist attractions in the United States
This is a list of the most popular individual tourist attractions in the United States, lists of tourist attractions organized by subject region, and a selection of other notable tourist attractions and destinations.
Click on any of the following blue hyperlinks for more about Tourist Attractions in the United States:
- Top tourist attractions
- Hotels
- Lists of tourist attractions in the United States
- Former tourist attractions
See also:
- List of World Heritage Sites in the United States
- Visa policy of the United States
- Welcome centers in the United States
- Visit the USA – The Official Travel and Tourism Website of the United States.
- National Travel and Tourism Office
- U.S. Travel Association
- International Inbound Travel Association (Formerly Receptive Services Association of America
EcoTourism in the United States
- YouTube Videeo: What Is Ecotourism & Why Should We Be Ecotourists?
- YouTube Video: What are the benefits of ECOTOURISM?
- YouTube Video: Is ecotourism better for the environment? | Mongabay Explains
Ecotourism in the United States
Ecotourism in the United States is commonly practiced in protected areas such as national parks and nature reserves. The principles and behaviors of ecotourism are slowly becoming more widespread in the United States; for example, hotels in some regions strive to be more sustainable.
Regions:
Northeast:
Environment and wildlife:
The Appalachian Mountain range and the Smoky Mountain range separates the Northeast region into three different areas: the Appalachian Plateaus west of the mountain range, the Mountain ranges themselves, and the Piedmont Plateau and coastal plains. The entire region is known to have cold winters and warm summers, leading to a winter deciduous forest dominated by tall broadleaf species.
The vegetation is separated into three distinct associations: Appalachian oak, pine-oak, and mixed mesophytic. The mixed mesophytic is found on the Appalachian Plateaus and has a great diversity of vegetative species, including:
The pine-oak forests are found along the sandy Coastal Plains and have a think shrub understory. The Appalachian oak forests are found east of the mountains and in mid-range elevations and are dominated by white oak and northern red oak. The upper elevations of the mountains also have a distinct northeastern hardwood forest where species such as birch, beech, maple, elm, red oak, and basswood, hemlock and white pine can all be found.
The highest elevation points are vegetated mainly by spruce-fir forest and meadows. The Adirondack Mountains in the far northeast of the United States are part of the Eastern forest-boreal transition zone between the boreal forests of the north and the deciduous forests of the south. Here a mixture of red spruce, fir, birch, maple, and beech are found.
The mammal species found throughout the Northeast United States are similar to those of the Southeast and include:
The Northeast has a very abundant bird population. Common game birds found in the region are turkey, ruffed grouse, bobwhite, and mourning dove.
Other non-game birds found in abundance include:
In the mountain range other commonly found species include:
Common reptiles are the box turtle, common garter snake, timber rattlesnake, and 27 different species of salamanders. Species that are unique to the Adirondack Mountain range habitat are longtail shrew, boreal (southern) redback vole, gray-cheeked thrush, spruce grouse, and gray jay.
Ecotourism opportunities:
The three different mountain ranges (Appalachian, Smoky, and Adirondack), ample coastlines, and the diversity of wildlife species, especially bird species, allow for many opportunities in ecotourism to develop.
Southeast:
The Southeastern United States is dominated by a humid subtropical climate, with the exception of South Florida, which is designated as a tropical savannah.
In the Southeastern US, long, hot, and wet summers (though still sunny), and mild winters create a lush landscape with many evergreen forests, especially from South Carolina south to central Florida. South Florida's tropical climate has a wet season from May through October, when the Bermuda High dominates and creates a deep flow of tropical air, and a dry season from November through April, when semi-arid conditions, sunshine, and dry weather prevail.
Although the risk from a tropical cyclone in any one spot is small, there is also a risk of a hurricane from June through October.
The typical vegetation in the Southeast is forests, with much of the sandy coastal regions dominated by: old growth forests of loblolly pine, longleaf pine, shortleaf pine and slash pine.
Some areas near the coast have subtropical evergreen forests with southern magnolia, Live oak, and palms in thick, jungle like areas, especially in parts of Florida and the coastal areas of Georgia. Inland areas have deciduous forests usually consisting of various pine species along with:
The main grasses found in the Southeast are:
The Gulf Coast area is bordered by salt marshes dominated by the marsh grass Spartina.
In central Florida the climate promotes multiple types of ecotourism, as well as more traditional tourism through Orlando's theme parks. The region has multiple state parks that serve as hubs for ecotours. Silver springs state park operates glass bottom boat tours, kayak tours, as well as hiking through the park's many wooded trails.
The east coast also features several unique forms of ecotourism, including the rare bioluminescence effect in their lagoons and rivers caused by dinoflagellates being agitated by the movement of water around them. One such example of this ecotourist attraction is bioluminescent kayaking in Brevard County, FL.
This seasonal tourist activity is a type of nighttime ecotour where guests follow a tour guide in kayaks, and observe the bioluminescent reaction of dinoflagellates in the water as they paddle.
In southern Florida the habitat is known as tropical savanna. Here plants must adapt to hot rainy conditions in summer, and dry nearly drought conditions in winter. As such, everything from cactus to towering palm trees are found across central and south Florida.
The Florida Everglades is the "River of Grass", and seasonally flooded river grassland with 15 foot pythons and home to the American crocodile. This is region characterized as having open expanses of tall grasses, such as sawgrass and three-awns, interspersed with hardy, drought-resistant trees and shrubs.
Many tropical trees found in the nearby Caribbean are found in southern Florida. Many native palms are found across southern Florida, including coconut palms (the only area they can grow on the US mainland). Cypress forests are extensive in this region, along with mangroves along the coastal areas.
Off the coast of southern Florida and the Florida Keys the only coral reefs on the US mainland are present. Manatees are found in estuaries and channels throughout the state. Coral reefs serve as habitat for many hundreds of tropical fish species, some found only in Florida waters. Many Lizards and snake species are found in Florida.
To the north in the southeast, many indigenous mammals are found. The greater southeastern USA is home to 70% of all bird and plant species found on the North American mainland.
Many mammals inhabit this region including:
Bobwhite and wild turkey are the main game bird that can be found in the region.
Other very common birds found in the Southeast are:
Many non-game migratory birds and migratory waterfowl are common as well. The endangered red-cockaded woodpecker is also native to the region.
Numerous species of reptiles and amphibians can be found here as well, such as:
The forest snake species found include:
Midwest:
Environment and wildlife:
The Midwestern United States is central and located inland. The area was once covered in glaciers. It is varied in geography and environment, from the Appalachian Mountains to the Great Lakes and the Great Plains, farther west. The Great Lakes states (Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Minnesota, Ohio, and Wisconsin) form a large drainage basin that feed into the lakes.
The Great Plains states (Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, and South Dakota) are mainly prairies. Much of the land is used for farming. Forest zones in the region are a mix of pine trees, yellow birches, sugar maples, and American beech trees. The oak-hickory forests fade into prairie, but trees are still found near water sources. Soil is extremely varied, including peat, clay, silt, and sand.
Many of the birds such as ptarmigan, migrate south for the winter. Other mammals in the region include gray squirrels, who feed on the acorns from the oak-hickory trees, fox squirrels, chipmunks, and prairie dogs.
Ecotourism opportunities:
To protect the Great Plains wildlife, the American Prairie Foundation has established the American Prairie in Montana. It aims to restore bison, prairie dogs, and ferrets in the area.
By restoring the prairies, the Foundation aims to improve enjoyment of the land and incur economic benefits through tourism to the area.
Forging ecotourism cooperation partnership amongst foundations like the American Prairie and world natural heritage sites like the Chitwan National Park or Mt. Everest in Nepal may prove to be even more supportive towards making our planet a beautiful place to live in.
Northwest:
The Northwest of the United States is dominated by the Cascade Mountain range and is characterized by cool winters that are very cloudy, and cool to mild summers. Rainfall ranging from 30 to 150 inches per year. These heavy rains have led to the growth of coniferous forests that include:
Along the coastal regions, however, glaciers and rivers dominate, leading to riparian forests that have broadleaf species such as black cottonwood and red alder.
Common mammals include:
Important game birds are ruffed grouse and blue grouse. Other non-game bird species found in this region are:
The Pacific treefrog, Pacific giant salamander, northern alligator lizard, and rubber boa can also be found here.
Organizations in the Northwest:
Oregon is home to several organizations that support businesses who follow ecologically sustainable practices. Some of these organization are:
These organizations consult with businesses and communities in the Northwest to help promote such practices.
Organizations, such as Salmon-Safe, support businesses that use ecologically sustainable practices and will certify companies that comply to these standards.
Southwest:
The southwest of the United States is the most arid region of the nation and this allows for a very different set of ecosystems and natural habitats to exist. Ecotourism in the southwest of the United States focuses around the natural areas of the Grand Canyon, Colorado River, desert areas and the Pacific Ocean. This part of the country has numerous herds of wild horses and burros which roam the wild lands of Nevada.
Alaska:
Alaska's Boreal forest contains many varieties of tree, primarily black and white spruce but also including balsam poplar, aspen, and paper birch. It is the coldest terrestrial ecosystem on Earth. Fire is common and is often caused by lightning or humans. Burnt organic materials enrich the soil, and the regrowth of vegetation allows for biodiversity.
It is home to:
The climate in this region is very extreme, with exceptionally cold winters and hot summers.
The Arctic tundra is flat and treeless, with extensive marshes and lakes. Winters are long and cold and the short summers also remain cool. A layer of permafrost, or frozen soil, lies beneath the tundra's surface. Permafrost limits plant growth since their roots are unable to reach very deep. Cottongrass-tussock is the most widespread type of vegetation in the region.
Global warming poses a threat to this region and its permafrost. Alaska is home to a large brown bear population, including grizzly bears and Kodiak bears. Black bears and moose live throughout the state. Polar bears live along the coast in the Arctic tundra region; caribou are also concentrated in the tundra.
Hawaii:
Being a chain of individually formed volcanic islands, the ecosystems of Hawaii are extremely numerous and diverse, including deserts, beaches, coral reefs, and rainforests.
Hawaiian tropical rainforests are found on windward mountain slopes. Coral reefs are located close to the shore of the islands. The coastlines are rough and the climate is tropical and remains fairly steady due to the ocean and trade winds. Shrubs are found in the coastal lowlands. They are topped by forests sloping up the mountains. There are four major types of forest, varying with level of moisture.
There are dry forests, wet forests, and those composed of ohia and treelike ferns and the koa tree. Bogs are found near the mountain tops. Hawaiian wildlife is unique in that the majority of it is endemic, or found only in that specific region. This is due to Hawaii's geographic isolation.
Species arrived via wind, water, or flight. As a result of small populations and environmental and climatic variation within small areas, many endemic species are considered vulnerable or endangered. The Hawaiian goose, nene, is classified as vulnerable. The yellow hibiscus flower and the Hawaiian honeycreeper, po’ouli, are endangered. There are many seabirds such as boobies and petrels.
There are a few introduced mammals, such as the Hawaiian wild boar, and very few reptiles, including no native snakes.
See also:
Ecotourism in the United States is commonly practiced in protected areas such as national parks and nature reserves. The principles and behaviors of ecotourism are slowly becoming more widespread in the United States; for example, hotels in some regions strive to be more sustainable.
Regions:
Northeast:
Environment and wildlife:
The Appalachian Mountain range and the Smoky Mountain range separates the Northeast region into three different areas: the Appalachian Plateaus west of the mountain range, the Mountain ranges themselves, and the Piedmont Plateau and coastal plains. The entire region is known to have cold winters and warm summers, leading to a winter deciduous forest dominated by tall broadleaf species.
The vegetation is separated into three distinct associations: Appalachian oak, pine-oak, and mixed mesophytic. The mixed mesophytic is found on the Appalachian Plateaus and has a great diversity of vegetative species, including:
- American beech,
- tuliptree (or yellow-poplar),
- several basswoods,
- sugar maple,
- sweet buckeye,
- red oak,
- white oak,
- and eastern hemlock.
The pine-oak forests are found along the sandy Coastal Plains and have a think shrub understory. The Appalachian oak forests are found east of the mountains and in mid-range elevations and are dominated by white oak and northern red oak. The upper elevations of the mountains also have a distinct northeastern hardwood forest where species such as birch, beech, maple, elm, red oak, and basswood, hemlock and white pine can all be found.
The highest elevation points are vegetated mainly by spruce-fir forest and meadows. The Adirondack Mountains in the far northeast of the United States are part of the Eastern forest-boreal transition zone between the boreal forests of the north and the deciduous forests of the south. Here a mixture of red spruce, fir, birch, maple, and beech are found.
The mammal species found throughout the Northeast United States are similar to those of the Southeast and include:
- whitetail deer,
- black bear,
- bobcat,
- gray fox,
- raccoon,
- eastern gray squirrel,
- fox squirrel,
- eastern chipmunk,
- white-footed mouse,
- pine vole,
- and cotton mouse.
The Northeast has a very abundant bird population. Common game birds found in the region are turkey, ruffed grouse, bobwhite, and mourning dove.
Other non-game birds found in abundance include:
- the cardinal,
- Carolina wren,
- wood thrush,
- summer tanager,
- red-eyed vireo,
- blue-gray gnatcatcher,
- and tufted titmouse.
In the mountain range other commonly found species include:
- red-breasted nuthatches,
- black-throated green warblers,
- golden-crowned warblers,
- flickersworm-eating warblers,
- brilliant hooded warbler,
- golden-crowned kinglets,
- northern juncos,
- pileated woodpeckers,
- downy, hairy, and red-bellied woodpeckers,
- Louisiana waterthrush,
- wood thrush,
- ovenbird,
- summer tanager,
- and rose-breasted grosbeak.
Common reptiles are the box turtle, common garter snake, timber rattlesnake, and 27 different species of salamanders. Species that are unique to the Adirondack Mountain range habitat are longtail shrew, boreal (southern) redback vole, gray-cheeked thrush, spruce grouse, and gray jay.
Ecotourism opportunities:
The three different mountain ranges (Appalachian, Smoky, and Adirondack), ample coastlines, and the diversity of wildlife species, especially bird species, allow for many opportunities in ecotourism to develop.
Southeast:
The Southeastern United States is dominated by a humid subtropical climate, with the exception of South Florida, which is designated as a tropical savannah.
In the Southeastern US, long, hot, and wet summers (though still sunny), and mild winters create a lush landscape with many evergreen forests, especially from South Carolina south to central Florida. South Florida's tropical climate has a wet season from May through October, when the Bermuda High dominates and creates a deep flow of tropical air, and a dry season from November through April, when semi-arid conditions, sunshine, and dry weather prevail.
Although the risk from a tropical cyclone in any one spot is small, there is also a risk of a hurricane from June through October.
The typical vegetation in the Southeast is forests, with much of the sandy coastal regions dominated by: old growth forests of loblolly pine, longleaf pine, shortleaf pine and slash pine.
Some areas near the coast have subtropical evergreen forests with southern magnolia, Live oak, and palms in thick, jungle like areas, especially in parts of Florida and the coastal areas of Georgia. Inland areas have deciduous forests usually consisting of various pine species along with:
The main grasses found in the Southeast are:
- bluestem,
- panicums,
- and longleaf uniola,
- with dogwood,
- viburnum,
- haw,
- blueberry,
- American beautyberry,
- youpon,
- and numerous woody vines being common as well.
The Gulf Coast area is bordered by salt marshes dominated by the marsh grass Spartina.
In central Florida the climate promotes multiple types of ecotourism, as well as more traditional tourism through Orlando's theme parks. The region has multiple state parks that serve as hubs for ecotours. Silver springs state park operates glass bottom boat tours, kayak tours, as well as hiking through the park's many wooded trails.
The east coast also features several unique forms of ecotourism, including the rare bioluminescence effect in their lagoons and rivers caused by dinoflagellates being agitated by the movement of water around them. One such example of this ecotourist attraction is bioluminescent kayaking in Brevard County, FL.
This seasonal tourist activity is a type of nighttime ecotour where guests follow a tour guide in kayaks, and observe the bioluminescent reaction of dinoflagellates in the water as they paddle.
In southern Florida the habitat is known as tropical savanna. Here plants must adapt to hot rainy conditions in summer, and dry nearly drought conditions in winter. As such, everything from cactus to towering palm trees are found across central and south Florida.
The Florida Everglades is the "River of Grass", and seasonally flooded river grassland with 15 foot pythons and home to the American crocodile. This is region characterized as having open expanses of tall grasses, such as sawgrass and three-awns, interspersed with hardy, drought-resistant trees and shrubs.
Many tropical trees found in the nearby Caribbean are found in southern Florida. Many native palms are found across southern Florida, including coconut palms (the only area they can grow on the US mainland). Cypress forests are extensive in this region, along with mangroves along the coastal areas.
Off the coast of southern Florida and the Florida Keys the only coral reefs on the US mainland are present. Manatees are found in estuaries and channels throughout the state. Coral reefs serve as habitat for many hundreds of tropical fish species, some found only in Florida waters. Many Lizards and snake species are found in Florida.
To the north in the southeast, many indigenous mammals are found. The greater southeastern USA is home to 70% of all bird and plant species found on the North American mainland.
Many mammals inhabit this region including:
- wolf,
- coyote,
- fox,
- raccoons,
- squirrels,
- eastern gray squirrels,
- cottontail rabbits,
- armadillos
- and opossums.
Bobwhite and wild turkey are the main game bird that can be found in the region.
Other very common birds found in the Southeast are:
- mourning doves,
- pine warbler,
- cardinal,
- summer tanager,
- Carolina wren,
- ruby-throated hummingbird,
- blue jay
- , hooded warbler,
- eastern towhee,
- and tufted titmouse.
Many non-game migratory birds and migratory waterfowl are common as well. The endangered red-cockaded woodpecker is also native to the region.
Numerous species of reptiles and amphibians can be found here as well, such as:
- the American alligator,
- common and alligator snapping turtles,
- fence and glass lizards,
- and salamanders.
The forest snake species found include:
- cottonmouth moccasin,
- copperhead,
- rough green snake,
- rat snake,
- coachwhip,
- and speckled kingsnake.
Midwest:
Environment and wildlife:
The Midwestern United States is central and located inland. The area was once covered in glaciers. It is varied in geography and environment, from the Appalachian Mountains to the Great Lakes and the Great Plains, farther west. The Great Lakes states (Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Minnesota, Ohio, and Wisconsin) form a large drainage basin that feed into the lakes.
The Great Plains states (Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, and South Dakota) are mainly prairies. Much of the land is used for farming. Forest zones in the region are a mix of pine trees, yellow birches, sugar maples, and American beech trees. The oak-hickory forests fade into prairie, but trees are still found near water sources. Soil is extremely varied, including peat, clay, silt, and sand.
Many of the birds such as ptarmigan, migrate south for the winter. Other mammals in the region include gray squirrels, who feed on the acorns from the oak-hickory trees, fox squirrels, chipmunks, and prairie dogs.
Ecotourism opportunities:
To protect the Great Plains wildlife, the American Prairie Foundation has established the American Prairie in Montana. It aims to restore bison, prairie dogs, and ferrets in the area.
By restoring the prairies, the Foundation aims to improve enjoyment of the land and incur economic benefits through tourism to the area.
Forging ecotourism cooperation partnership amongst foundations like the American Prairie and world natural heritage sites like the Chitwan National Park or Mt. Everest in Nepal may prove to be even more supportive towards making our planet a beautiful place to live in.
Northwest:
The Northwest of the United States is dominated by the Cascade Mountain range and is characterized by cool winters that are very cloudy, and cool to mild summers. Rainfall ranging from 30 to 150 inches per year. These heavy rains have led to the growth of coniferous forests that include:
- Douglas-fir,
- western redcedar,
- western hemlock,
- grand fir,
- silver fir,
- subalpine fir,
- whitebark pine,
- Sitka spruce,
- and Alaska cypress,
- along with an abundance of thick shrub understory.
Along the coastal regions, however, glaciers and rivers dominate, leading to riparian forests that have broadleaf species such as black cottonwood and red alder.
Common mammals include:
- Sitka deer,
- Roosevelt elk,
- mountain lion,
- American black bear,
- Douglas squirrel,
- red tree vole,
- and Townsend's chipmunk.
Important game birds are ruffed grouse and blue grouse. Other non-game bird species found in this region are:
- winter wren,
- Townsend's warbler,
- chestnut-backed chickadee,
- red-breasted nuthatch,
- spotted owl
- and marbled murrelet
The Pacific treefrog, Pacific giant salamander, northern alligator lizard, and rubber boa can also be found here.
Organizations in the Northwest:
Oregon is home to several organizations that support businesses who follow ecologically sustainable practices. Some of these organization are:
These organizations consult with businesses and communities in the Northwest to help promote such practices.
Organizations, such as Salmon-Safe, support businesses that use ecologically sustainable practices and will certify companies that comply to these standards.
Southwest:
The southwest of the United States is the most arid region of the nation and this allows for a very different set of ecosystems and natural habitats to exist. Ecotourism in the southwest of the United States focuses around the natural areas of the Grand Canyon, Colorado River, desert areas and the Pacific Ocean. This part of the country has numerous herds of wild horses and burros which roam the wild lands of Nevada.
Alaska:
Alaska's Boreal forest contains many varieties of tree, primarily black and white spruce but also including balsam poplar, aspen, and paper birch. It is the coldest terrestrial ecosystem on Earth. Fire is common and is often caused by lightning or humans. Burnt organic materials enrich the soil, and the regrowth of vegetation allows for biodiversity.
It is home to:
- Arctic ground squirrels and northern flying squirrels,
- marmots,
- woodchucks,
- and birds such as
- gray jays,
- boreal chickadees,
- northern flickers,
- red-tailed hawks,
- and boreal owls.
The climate in this region is very extreme, with exceptionally cold winters and hot summers.
The Arctic tundra is flat and treeless, with extensive marshes and lakes. Winters are long and cold and the short summers also remain cool. A layer of permafrost, or frozen soil, lies beneath the tundra's surface. Permafrost limits plant growth since their roots are unable to reach very deep. Cottongrass-tussock is the most widespread type of vegetation in the region.
Global warming poses a threat to this region and its permafrost. Alaska is home to a large brown bear population, including grizzly bears and Kodiak bears. Black bears and moose live throughout the state. Polar bears live along the coast in the Arctic tundra region; caribou are also concentrated in the tundra.
Hawaii:
Being a chain of individually formed volcanic islands, the ecosystems of Hawaii are extremely numerous and diverse, including deserts, beaches, coral reefs, and rainforests.
Hawaiian tropical rainforests are found on windward mountain slopes. Coral reefs are located close to the shore of the islands. The coastlines are rough and the climate is tropical and remains fairly steady due to the ocean and trade winds. Shrubs are found in the coastal lowlands. They are topped by forests sloping up the mountains. There are four major types of forest, varying with level of moisture.
There are dry forests, wet forests, and those composed of ohia and treelike ferns and the koa tree. Bogs are found near the mountain tops. Hawaiian wildlife is unique in that the majority of it is endemic, or found only in that specific region. This is due to Hawaii's geographic isolation.
Species arrived via wind, water, or flight. As a result of small populations and environmental and climatic variation within small areas, many endemic species are considered vulnerable or endangered. The Hawaiian goose, nene, is classified as vulnerable. The yellow hibiscus flower and the Hawaiian honeycreeper, po’ouli, are endangered. There are many seabirds such as boobies and petrels.
There are a few introduced mammals, such as the Hawaiian wild boar, and very few reptiles, including no native snakes.
See also:
- Tourism in the United States
- Environment of the United States
- National Park Travelers Club
- "Alaska Department of Fish and Game"
- "Hawaii Nature Guide"
Impacts of Tourism
(by: Westford University College
- YouTube Video: What's the importance of tourism to the world's economy?
- YouTube Video: Social and Cultural Impacts of Tourism
- YouTube Video: The Rise of Medical Tourism
(by: Westford University College
Impacts of tourism
Pictured below: the following four areas (Economic, Socio-cultural, Environmental and Health) define the overall impact of tourism (By Volga2018 - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=100211010)
Pictured below: the following four areas (Economic, Socio-cultural, Environmental and Health) define the overall impact of tourism (By Volga2018 - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=100211010)
Tourism impacts tourist destinations in both positive and negative ways, encompassing economic, socio-cultural, and environmental dimensions. The traditionally-described domains of tourism impacts are economic, socio-cultural, environmental and Health*.
The economic effects of tourism encompass improved tax revenue, personal income growth, enhanced living standards, and the creation of additional employment opportunities
Sociocultural impacts are associated with interactions between people with differing cultural backgrounds, attitudes and behaviors, and relationships to material goods.
Environmental impacts can be categorized as direct effects including:
* -- Tourism also has positive and negative health outcomes for local people. The short-term negative impacts of tourism on residents' health are related to:
In addition, residents can experience anxiety and depression related to their risk perceptions about mortality rates, food insecurity, contact with infected tourists, etc., which can result in negative mental health outcomes.
At the same time, there are positive long-term impacts of tourism on residents' health and well-being outcomes through improving healthcare access positive emotions, novelty, and social interactions.
Click on any of the following blue hyperlinks for more about the Impacts of Tourism:
The economic effects of tourism encompass improved tax revenue, personal income growth, enhanced living standards, and the creation of additional employment opportunities
Sociocultural impacts are associated with interactions between people with differing cultural backgrounds, attitudes and behaviors, and relationships to material goods.
Environmental impacts can be categorized as direct effects including:
- degradation of habitat,
- vegetation,
- air quality,
- bodies of water,
- the water table,
- wildlife,
- and changes in natural phenomena,
- and indirect effects, such as
- increased harvesting of natural resources to supply food,
- indirect air and water pollution (including from flights, transport and the manufacture of food and souvenirs for tourists).
* -- Tourism also has positive and negative health outcomes for local people. The short-term negative impacts of tourism on residents' health are related to:
- the density of tourist's arrivals,
- the risk of disease transmission,
- road accidents,
- higher crime levels,
- as well as
- traffic congestion,
- crowding,
- and other stressful factors.
In addition, residents can experience anxiety and depression related to their risk perceptions about mortality rates, food insecurity, contact with infected tourists, etc., which can result in negative mental health outcomes.
At the same time, there are positive long-term impacts of tourism on residents' health and well-being outcomes through improving healthcare access positive emotions, novelty, and social interactions.
Click on any of the following blue hyperlinks for more about the Impacts of Tourism:
Cultural Tourism
- YouTube Video: The Rise of Cultural Tourism | Everything You Need To Know About Cultural Tourism
- YouTube Video: Top 8 Cultural Travel Destinations
- YouTube Video: 50 UNESCO World Heritage Tourism Sites You Must Visit - Travel Video
Cultural tourism:
Cultural tourism is a type of tourism activity in which the visitor's essential motivation is to learn, discover, experience and consume the tangible and intangible cultural attractions/products in a tourism destination.
These attractions/products relate to a set of distinctive material, intellectual, spiritual, and emotional features of a society that encompasses arts and architecture, historical and cultural heritage, culinary heritage, literature, music, creative industries and the living cultures with their lifestyles, value systems, beliefs and traditions.
Overview
Cultural tourism experiences include:
It includes tourism in urban areas, particularly historic or large cities and their cultural facilities such as theatres. In the twenty-first-century United States, national parks and a limited number of Native American councils continue to promote "tribal tourism."
The U.S. National Park Service has publicly endorsed this strain of cultural tourism, despite lingering concerns over exploitation and the potential hazards of ecotourism in Native America.
Proponents of cultural tourism say that it gives the local population the opportunity to benefit financially from their cultural heritage and thus to appreciate and preserve it, while giving visitors the opportunity to broaden their personal horizons.
Cultural tourism also has negative sides. There may be negative effects on local residents, such as making the local economy unstable, increasing the cost of living for local residents, increasing pollution or creating environmental problems. The local economy can also be destabilized due to the rapid change in population size. The local population also comes into contact with new ways of life that can disrupt their social fabric.
This form of tourism is also becoming generally more popular throughout the world, and a recent OECD report has highlighted the role that cultural tourism can play in regional development in different world regions. Cultural tourism has been also defined as 'the movement of persons to cultural attractions away from their normal place of residence, with the intention to gather new information and experiences to satisfy their cultural needs'.
Nowadays, cultural tourism has recently shifted in the nature of demand with a growing desire for cultural "experiences" in particular. Additionally, cultural and heritage tourism experiences appear to be a potentially key component of memorable tourism experiences.
Destinations
One type of cultural tourism destination is living cultural areas. Visiting any culture other than one's own such as traveling to a foreign country. Other destinations include historical sites, modern urban districts, "ethnic pockets" of:
Buczkowska distinguishes sectors of cultural tourism due to:
It has been shown that cultural attractions and events are particularly strong magnets for tourism. In light of this, many cultural districts add visitor services to key cultural areas to bolster tourist activity.
The term cultural tourism is used for journeys that include visits to cultural resources, regardless of whether it is tangible or intangible cultural resources, and regardless of the primary motivation. In order to understand properly the concept of cultural tourism, it is necessary to know the definitions of a number terms such as, for example, culture, tourism, cultural economy, cultural and tourism potentials, cultural and tourist offer, and others.
Creative tourism:
Creative tourism is a new type of tourism, recently theorized and defined by Greg Richards and Crispin Raymond in 2000. They defined creative tourism as: “Tourism which offers visitors the opportunity to develop their creative potential through active participation in courses and learning experiences, which are characteristic of the holiday destination where they are taken." (Richards, Greg et Raymond, Crispin, 2000).
Creative Tourism involves active participation from tourists in cultural experiences specific to each holiday destination.
This type of tourism is opposed to mass tourism and allows the destinations to diversify and offer innovative activities different from other destinations.
Similarly, UNESCO launched in 2004 a program entitled Creative Cities Network. This network aims to highlight cities around the world that are putting creativity at the heart of their sustainable urban development plan.
Creative cities are organized into seven categories representing seven different creative fields:
As of January 2020, the network has 246 members across all categories. In order to promote the development of this new type of tourism, a non-profit organization was created in Barcelona in 2010: Creative Tourism Network. Its missions involve, among others: the promotion of creative tourism, the creation of a network of “Creative-friendly” cities but also awards celebration, The Creative Tourism Awards.
See also:
Cultural tourism is a type of tourism activity in which the visitor's essential motivation is to learn, discover, experience and consume the tangible and intangible cultural attractions/products in a tourism destination.
These attractions/products relate to a set of distinctive material, intellectual, spiritual, and emotional features of a society that encompasses arts and architecture, historical and cultural heritage, culinary heritage, literature, music, creative industries and the living cultures with their lifestyles, value systems, beliefs and traditions.
Overview
Cultural tourism experiences include:
- architectural and archaeological treasures,
- culinary activities,
- festivals or events,
- historic or heritage sites,
- monuments and landmarks,
- museums and exhibitions,
- national parks and wildlife sanctuaries,
- religious venues,
- temples and churches.
It includes tourism in urban areas, particularly historic or large cities and their cultural facilities such as theatres. In the twenty-first-century United States, national parks and a limited number of Native American councils continue to promote "tribal tourism."
The U.S. National Park Service has publicly endorsed this strain of cultural tourism, despite lingering concerns over exploitation and the potential hazards of ecotourism in Native America.
Proponents of cultural tourism say that it gives the local population the opportunity to benefit financially from their cultural heritage and thus to appreciate and preserve it, while giving visitors the opportunity to broaden their personal horizons.
Cultural tourism also has negative sides. There may be negative effects on local residents, such as making the local economy unstable, increasing the cost of living for local residents, increasing pollution or creating environmental problems. The local economy can also be destabilized due to the rapid change in population size. The local population also comes into contact with new ways of life that can disrupt their social fabric.
This form of tourism is also becoming generally more popular throughout the world, and a recent OECD report has highlighted the role that cultural tourism can play in regional development in different world regions. Cultural tourism has been also defined as 'the movement of persons to cultural attractions away from their normal place of residence, with the intention to gather new information and experiences to satisfy their cultural needs'.
Nowadays, cultural tourism has recently shifted in the nature of demand with a growing desire for cultural "experiences" in particular. Additionally, cultural and heritage tourism experiences appear to be a potentially key component of memorable tourism experiences.
Destinations
One type of cultural tourism destination is living cultural areas. Visiting any culture other than one's own such as traveling to a foreign country. Other destinations include historical sites, modern urban districts, "ethnic pockets" of:
- town or village,
- fairs/festivals,
- theme parks,
- and natural ecosystems.
Buczkowska distinguishes sectors of cultural tourism due to:
- the route or destination of the trip (study trips or cultural trips - thematic field trips, urban tourism, rural tourism),
- the theme of the trip undertaken (tourism of cultural heritage, tourism of contemporary culture, tourism of cultural heritage and contemporary culture).
It has been shown that cultural attractions and events are particularly strong magnets for tourism. In light of this, many cultural districts add visitor services to key cultural areas to bolster tourist activity.
The term cultural tourism is used for journeys that include visits to cultural resources, regardless of whether it is tangible or intangible cultural resources, and regardless of the primary motivation. In order to understand properly the concept of cultural tourism, it is necessary to know the definitions of a number terms such as, for example, culture, tourism, cultural economy, cultural and tourism potentials, cultural and tourist offer, and others.
Creative tourism:
Creative tourism is a new type of tourism, recently theorized and defined by Greg Richards and Crispin Raymond in 2000. They defined creative tourism as: “Tourism which offers visitors the opportunity to develop their creative potential through active participation in courses and learning experiences, which are characteristic of the holiday destination where they are taken." (Richards, Greg et Raymond, Crispin, 2000).
Creative Tourism involves active participation from tourists in cultural experiences specific to each holiday destination.
This type of tourism is opposed to mass tourism and allows the destinations to diversify and offer innovative activities different from other destinations.
Similarly, UNESCO launched in 2004 a program entitled Creative Cities Network. This network aims to highlight cities around the world that are putting creativity at the heart of their sustainable urban development plan.
Creative cities are organized into seven categories representing seven different creative fields:
- crafts and folk arts,
- digital arts,
- film,
- design,
- gastronomy,
- literature,
- and music.
As of January 2020, the network has 246 members across all categories. In order to promote the development of this new type of tourism, a non-profit organization was created in Barcelona in 2010: Creative Tourism Network. Its missions involve, among others: the promotion of creative tourism, the creation of a network of “Creative-friendly” cities but also awards celebration, The Creative Tourism Awards.
See also:
- Archaeological tourism
- Cultural diplomacy
- Cultural tourism in Egypt
- Film tourism
- Impacts of tourism
- Literary tourism
- Overtourism
- Tourist trap
Extreme Tourism Picture below: 4 Examples of Extreme Tourism
Extreme tourism (also often referred to as shock tourism, although both concepts do not appear strictly similar) is a niche in the tourism industry involving travel to dangerous places (mountains, jungles, deserts, caves, canyons, etc.) or participation in dangerous events.
Extreme tourism overlaps with extreme sport. The two share the main attraction, "adrenaline rush" caused by an element of risk, and differ mostly in the degree of engagement and professionalism.
Some extreme attractions are the following:
Extreme tourism overlaps with extreme sport. The two share the main attraction, "adrenaline rush" caused by an element of risk, and differ mostly in the degree of engagement and professionalism.
Some extreme attractions are the following:
- Chernobyl Tours – Ukraine
- Swimming in the Devil's Pool in Victoria Falls – Zambia and Zimbabwe
- Walking the Plank at Mount Hua – China
- Death Road Tour – Bolivia
- Green Zone – Baghdad, Iraq
- Sac Actun tours – Riviera Maya, Mexico
- Cave of Swallows – Mexico
- Pole of Cold – Oymyakon, Yakutia, Siberia
- Titanic wreckage – Atlantic Ocean
- Mount Everest
- Space tourism
- Yemen
- Caving, Speleology
- Exploration
- Paragliding
- Bungee jumping,
- Skydiving,
- Base jumping
- Storm chasing
- Urban exploration
- Via ferrata
- War tourism
Pop Culture Tourism
Pictures Below:
TOP Row:
(L) Vienna – A City That Breathes Music, In & Out
(R) Travel searches for Singapore spiked after the release of Crazy Rich Asians.
BOTTOM Row:
(L) Rome – A City That Oozes Royalty, Romance, And Ruins
(R) Istanbul – A City That Brings Ancient Relics Back To Life
- YouTube video: The Rise of Cultural Tourism | Everything You Need To Know About Cultural Tourism
- YouTube Video: Cultural tourism for sustainable and creative cities
- YouTube Video: First tourists in AKIHABARA, TOKYO (Japan’s pop culture capital)
Pictures Below:
TOP Row:
(L) Vienna – A City That Breathes Music, In & Out
(R) Travel searches for Singapore spiked after the release of Crazy Rich Asians.
BOTTOM Row:
(L) Rome – A City That Oozes Royalty, Romance, And Ruins
(R) Istanbul – A City That Brings Ancient Relics Back To Life
Pop-culture tourism is the act of traveling to locations featured in popular literature, film, music, or any other form of media. Also referred to as a "Location Vacation".
Pop-culture tourism is in some respects akin to pilgrimage, with its modern equivalents of places of pilgrimage, such as Elvis Presley's Graceland and the grave of Jim Morrison in Père Lachaise Cemetery.
Locations:
See also: List of adjectival tourisms
Popular destinations have included:
See also:
Pop-culture tourism is in some respects akin to pilgrimage, with its modern equivalents of places of pilgrimage, such as Elvis Presley's Graceland and the grave of Jim Morrison in Père Lachaise Cemetery.
Locations:
See also: List of adjectival tourisms
Popular destinations have included:
- Petra, Jordan, where visits went from the thousands to the millions after the climactic scene of the 1989 film Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade was filmed in Al Khazneh.
- Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire, England, birthplace of William Shakespeare (1564–1616), receives about 4.9 million visitors a year from all over the world.
- Wimpstone, Warwickshire, England, where the original series of the BBC children's program Teletubbies was shot (1997–2001)
- Enoshima (Shōnan) and Kamakura district, originally a local tourist spot near Tokyo. Many Japanese anime and manga series, such as:
- Ping Pong (1996),
- Squid Girl (2007–2016),
- Tsuritama (2012),
- Tari Tari (2012),
- and one-off episodes in other series, took place there.
- Due to appearance in the opening theme of the 1990s anime series Slam Dunk, an ordinary level crossing of the Enoshima Electric Railway, near Kamakurakōkōmae Station, became popular attraction for tourists, notably from China and Taiwan.
- Civita di Bagnoregio, Italy, reported inspiration for the titular location of Castle in the Sky.
- Matamata, New Zealand, is the location of The Shire and Hobbiton in Peter Jackson's Lord of the Rings movie trilogy
- Dubrovnik, Croatia, is the location of King's Landing in the Game of Thrones TV series
- The former home of Beatrix Potter, popular children's author, is now a museum open to tourists in Near and Far Sawrey, England
- The Hunger Games film series was filmed in multiple locations in North Carolina, including the Henry River Mill Village, which housed the Mellark family bakery and the Everdeens’ shanty, and the DuPont State Recreational Forest, where some scenes from the arena were filmed.
- Forks, Washington, the setting of Stephenie Meyer's Twilight series.
See also:
- Film tourism, a specific form of pop-culture tourism
- Grand Tour
- Film commission, non-profit, public organizations that attract motion media production crews to shoot on location in their respective localities.
- Overtourism
Nautical Tourism
- YouTube Video: Learn How to Sail: A Step-by-Step Guide to SAILING
- YouTube Video: The 20 best cruise ships that are the most fun
- YouTube Video: Venice, Italy Canal Tour - Beautiful Scenery
Nautical tourism, also called water tourism, is tourism that combines sailing and boating with vacation and holiday activities. It can be travelling from port to port in a cruise ship, or joining boat-centered events such as regattas or landing a small boat for lunch or other day recreation at specially prepared day boat-landings. It is a form of tourism that is generally more popular in the summertime.
First defined as an industry segment in Europe and South America, it has since caught on in the United States and the Pacific Rim.
About:
Many tourists who enjoy sailing combine water travel with other activities. Supplying the equipment and accessories for those activities has spawned businesses for those purposes. With many nautical enthusiasts living on board their vessels even in port, nautical tourists bring demand for a variety of goods and services. Marinas developed especially for nautical tourists have been built in Europe, South America and Australia.
Services:
Tourist services available at marinas catering to nautical tourists include:
By region:
Europe:
Among the more interesting locations frequented by nautical tourists, Greek islands and the Croatian coast offers services at more than 50 ports, touting it as Mediterranean as it once was. Croatia's Greece's efforts have been so successful they have been offered to the tourism industry as a model for sustainable nautical tourism.
During this year's Adriatic Boat Show the official ceremony of opening the construction site of marina for mega-yachts has been held. Marina Mandalina & Yacht Club, situated in Šibenik, in 2011 will be able to accept 79 yachts up to 100 meters in length and provide them a complete service. Italy has gone to great lengths to attract boating tourists to its ports as well.
The Netherlands
Water travel used to be the only form of transportation between cities in the Netherlands. Since improvements in the road and rail structure, less and less commercial freight water traffic is using the water.
In the latter half of the 20th century the growth of water tourism exceeded the amount of freight traffic, and older cities whose ports were long disused refurbished them for water tourists. Water tourists are a strong lobby for protecting old water routes from being closed or filled. Both refurnished antique canal boats ("salonboten") and modern tour boats ("rondvaartboten") are available for tourist day trips in most Dutch cities.
A steady tourist industry has kept both the old canals of Amsterdam and their canal mansions open for water traffic. Their popularity has introduced water traffic safety laws to ensure that the commercial passenger boats have right-of-way over private skiffs and low yachts, while preventing fatal accidents.
To reduce the less desired side-effects of popular watertourist spots, the public awards stimulate sustainable tourist innovations, such as the EDEN award for the electricity-propelled tourist boats in De Weerribben-Wieden National Park.
Czech Republic
River tourism is exceptionally popular among the Czech people, who sail by canoes, rafts or other boats downstream major Bohemian rivers as:
The most popular and frequented river section is the Vltava from Vyšší Brod via Rožmberk and Český Krumlov to Zlatá Koruna, which is annually visited by as many as hundreds of thousands paddlers (in Czech called "vodáci", sg. "vodák"). The lowest section of the Sázava (downstream from Týnec nad Sázavou) is also very frequented, for its fine rapids, scenic landscape, and proximity to Prague.
In peak season, "traffic jams" can be regularly seen on the busiest rivers, mainly at weirs. The most popular river sections are plentifully equipped with camps, stands, pubs, and boat rental services. There has even some "paddlers' culture" developed, with peculiar slang, songs, traditions etc., related to the Czech tramping movement.
The Pacific:
Australia has invested $1.5 billion in facilities designed to attract nautical tourists and promote development of nautical tourism as a segment of the tourist trade. In 2016/17 saw the industry's total national economic contribution in Australia grow by 15.4% and contributed A$5.3 billion to the Australian economy.
Sydney, Brisbane and Melbourne accounted for 65% of the total passenger onshore visit days.
South America:
A growing worldwide industry segment, nautical tourism has become popular in South America. The Brazilian Ministry of Tourism has a website devoted to the subject. Puerto Rico has seen its share of growth in nautical tourism as well.
Not to be outdone, the Chilean Economic Development Agency has launched the Chilean Patagonia Nautical Tourism Program to develop and attract nautical tourists to the Chilean coast.
The United States;
Nautical tourism is big business, even in the United States. In the Southeast, the Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway, a meandering river and canal system that traverses Alabama and Mississippi linking the Tennessee River with the Gulf of Mexico, has become a favorite boating trail for nautical tourists who want a diverse route with a scenic view.
Originally conceived as an alternate shipping route for barges destined for the Midwest, the route proved too awkward for large tows. However, boating enthusiasts discovered it as a great way to see Middle-America.
Stops along the way include Mobile, Alabama, Demopolis, Alabama, and Amory and Columbus in Mississippi. Travelling north from the Gulf, boaters can follow the Tennessee River its intersection with the Ohio and travel a circuitous route back to the Gulf by way of New Orleans.
Likewise, the Intracoastal Waterway system, which stretches from Texas to New Jersey, has long provided nautical tourists with a well-marked channel and an inside passage that allows boaters to travel from southern Texas up the eastern seaboard without having to venture onto the high seas.
Using this route, boaters can stop at Galveston, Texas, any number of towns in southern Louisiana, including New Orleans. Farther west, Apalachicola, Florida provides a glimpse of Florida the way it used to be
Gallery
First defined as an industry segment in Europe and South America, it has since caught on in the United States and the Pacific Rim.
About:
Many tourists who enjoy sailing combine water travel with other activities. Supplying the equipment and accessories for those activities has spawned businesses for those purposes. With many nautical enthusiasts living on board their vessels even in port, nautical tourists bring demand for a variety of goods and services. Marinas developed especially for nautical tourists have been built in Europe, South America and Australia.
Services:
Tourist services available at marinas catering to nautical tourists include:
- Leasing of berths for sailing vessels and nautical tourists who live on board.
- Leasing of sailing vessels for holiday and recreational use (charter, cruising and similar),
- Reception, safe-guarding and maintenance of sailing vessels.
- Provision of stock (water, fuel, supplies, spare parts, equipment and similar).
- Preparation and keeping sailing vessels in order.
- Providing information to nautical enthusiasts (weather forecasts, nautical guides etc.)
- Leasing of water scooters, jet skis, and other water equipment.
By region:
Europe:
Among the more interesting locations frequented by nautical tourists, Greek islands and the Croatian coast offers services at more than 50 ports, touting it as Mediterranean as it once was. Croatia's Greece's efforts have been so successful they have been offered to the tourism industry as a model for sustainable nautical tourism.
During this year's Adriatic Boat Show the official ceremony of opening the construction site of marina for mega-yachts has been held. Marina Mandalina & Yacht Club, situated in Šibenik, in 2011 will be able to accept 79 yachts up to 100 meters in length and provide them a complete service. Italy has gone to great lengths to attract boating tourists to its ports as well.
The Netherlands
Water travel used to be the only form of transportation between cities in the Netherlands. Since improvements in the road and rail structure, less and less commercial freight water traffic is using the water.
In the latter half of the 20th century the growth of water tourism exceeded the amount of freight traffic, and older cities whose ports were long disused refurbished them for water tourists. Water tourists are a strong lobby for protecting old water routes from being closed or filled. Both refurnished antique canal boats ("salonboten") and modern tour boats ("rondvaartboten") are available for tourist day trips in most Dutch cities.
A steady tourist industry has kept both the old canals of Amsterdam and their canal mansions open for water traffic. Their popularity has introduced water traffic safety laws to ensure that the commercial passenger boats have right-of-way over private skiffs and low yachts, while preventing fatal accidents.
To reduce the less desired side-effects of popular watertourist spots, the public awards stimulate sustainable tourist innovations, such as the EDEN award for the electricity-propelled tourist boats in De Weerribben-Wieden National Park.
Czech Republic
River tourism is exceptionally popular among the Czech people, who sail by canoes, rafts or other boats downstream major Bohemian rivers as:
The most popular and frequented river section is the Vltava from Vyšší Brod via Rožmberk and Český Krumlov to Zlatá Koruna, which is annually visited by as many as hundreds of thousands paddlers (in Czech called "vodáci", sg. "vodák"). The lowest section of the Sázava (downstream from Týnec nad Sázavou) is also very frequented, for its fine rapids, scenic landscape, and proximity to Prague.
In peak season, "traffic jams" can be regularly seen on the busiest rivers, mainly at weirs. The most popular river sections are plentifully equipped with camps, stands, pubs, and boat rental services. There has even some "paddlers' culture" developed, with peculiar slang, songs, traditions etc., related to the Czech tramping movement.
The Pacific:
Australia has invested $1.5 billion in facilities designed to attract nautical tourists and promote development of nautical tourism as a segment of the tourist trade. In 2016/17 saw the industry's total national economic contribution in Australia grow by 15.4% and contributed A$5.3 billion to the Australian economy.
Sydney, Brisbane and Melbourne accounted for 65% of the total passenger onshore visit days.
South America:
A growing worldwide industry segment, nautical tourism has become popular in South America. The Brazilian Ministry of Tourism has a website devoted to the subject. Puerto Rico has seen its share of growth in nautical tourism as well.
Not to be outdone, the Chilean Economic Development Agency has launched the Chilean Patagonia Nautical Tourism Program to develop and attract nautical tourists to the Chilean coast.
The United States;
Nautical tourism is big business, even in the United States. In the Southeast, the Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway, a meandering river and canal system that traverses Alabama and Mississippi linking the Tennessee River with the Gulf of Mexico, has become a favorite boating trail for nautical tourists who want a diverse route with a scenic view.
Originally conceived as an alternate shipping route for barges destined for the Midwest, the route proved too awkward for large tows. However, boating enthusiasts discovered it as a great way to see Middle-America.
Stops along the way include Mobile, Alabama, Demopolis, Alabama, and Amory and Columbus in Mississippi. Travelling north from the Gulf, boaters can follow the Tennessee River its intersection with the Ohio and travel a circuitous route back to the Gulf by way of New Orleans.
Likewise, the Intracoastal Waterway system, which stretches from Texas to New Jersey, has long provided nautical tourists with a well-marked channel and an inside passage that allows boaters to travel from southern Texas up the eastern seaboard without having to venture onto the high seas.
Using this route, boaters can stop at Galveston, Texas, any number of towns in southern Louisiana, including New Orleans. Farther west, Apalachicola, Florida provides a glimpse of Florida the way it used to be
Gallery
___________________________________________________________________________
Sailing the Channel Islands off the Coast of Californa:
[Your WebHost was fortunate to have lived in California for 18 years (1978-1996) with his wife Evelyn, wherein we took up sailing sloops every weekend, and which we chartered from the Channel Islands Sailing Club]
Sailing the Channel Islands off the Coast of Californa:
[Your WebHost was fortunate to have lived in California for 18 years (1978-1996) with his wife Evelyn, wherein we took up sailing sloops every weekend, and which we chartered from the Channel Islands Sailing Club]
Channel Islands (California)
Pictured above: Ventura Harbor
Pictured below: A Gallery of Photos taken by (and of) Your Webhost sailing the Channel Islands:
Below: Sailing under Heavy Seas
Pictured above: Ventura Harbor
Pictured below: A Gallery of Photos taken by (and of) Your Webhost sailing the Channel Islands:
Below: Sailing under Heavy Seas
Below: Alcatraz Island, formerly a Prison and now a Tourist Attraction
Below: My wife, Evelyn at the stern of the sailboat
Pictured below: Sailing One-Handed!
Below: Photo by Bert of Anacapa Island including Arch through which you can see catamarans on the other side of Anacapa!
Channel Islands (California)
The Channel Islands (Spanish: islas del Canal, Archipiélago del Norte) are an eight-island archipelago located within the Southern California Bight in the Pacific Ocean, off the coast of California.
The four Northern Channel Islands are part of the Transverse Ranges geologic province, and the four Southern Channel Islands are part of the Peninsular Ranges province. Five of the islands are within the Channel Islands National Park, and the waters surrounding these islands make up Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary. The Nature Conservancy was instrumental in establishing the Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary.
The Chumash and Tongva Native Americans who lived later on the islands may be the descendants of the original inhabitants, but they were then displaced by Spaniards who used the islands for fishing and agriculture. The U.S. military uses some of the islands as training grounds, weapons test sites, and as a strategic defensive location.
The Channel Islands and the surrounding waters house a diverse ecosystem with many endemic species and subspecies. The islands harbor 150 unique species of plants.
Characteristics:
The eight islands are split among the jurisdictions of three California counties: Santa Barbara County (four), Ventura County (two), and Los Angeles County (two). The islands are divided into two groups; the northern Channel Islands and the southern Channel Islands. The four northern Islands used to be a single landmass known as Santa Rosae.
The archipelago extends for 160 miles (257 km) between San Miguel Island in the north and San Clemente Island in the south. Together, the islands’ land area totals 221,331 acres (89,569 ha), or about 346 square miles (900 km2).
Five of the islands (San Miguel, Santa Rosa, Santa Cruz, Anacapa (see image above), and Santa Barbara) were made into the Channel Islands National Park in 1980. The Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary encompasses the waters six nautical miles (11 kilometers; 6.9 miles) off these islands.
Santa Catalina Island is the only one of the eight islands with a significant permanent civilian settlement—the resort city of Avalon, California, and the unincorporated town of Two Harbors. University of Southern California also houses its USC Wrigley Institute for Environmental Studies marine lab in Two Harbors.
The Channel Islands National Park mainland visitor center in Ventura Harbor received 342,000 visitors in 2014. The islands attract around 70,000 tourists a year, mostly during the summer. Visitors can travel to the islands via public boat or airplane transportation.
Camping grounds are available on Anacapa, Santa Rosa, Santa Cruz, San Miguel, and Santa Barbara Islands in the Channel Islands National Park. Attractions include whale watching, hikes, snorkeling, kayaking and camping.
Natural seepage of oil occurs at several places in the Santa Barbara Channel. Tar balls or pieces of tar in small numbers are found in the kelp and on the beaches. Native Americans used naturally occurring tar, bitumen, for a variety of purposes which include roofing, waterproofing, paving and some ceremonial purposes.
The Channel Islands at low elevations are virtually frost-free and constitute one of the few such areas in the 48 contiguous US states. It snows only rarely, on higher mountain peaks.
Islands
Click on image below to be taken to the image contents:
The Channel Islands (Spanish: islas del Canal, Archipiélago del Norte) are an eight-island archipelago located within the Southern California Bight in the Pacific Ocean, off the coast of California.
The four Northern Channel Islands are part of the Transverse Ranges geologic province, and the four Southern Channel Islands are part of the Peninsular Ranges province. Five of the islands are within the Channel Islands National Park, and the waters surrounding these islands make up Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary. The Nature Conservancy was instrumental in establishing the Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary.
The Chumash and Tongva Native Americans who lived later on the islands may be the descendants of the original inhabitants, but they were then displaced by Spaniards who used the islands for fishing and agriculture. The U.S. military uses some of the islands as training grounds, weapons test sites, and as a strategic defensive location.
The Channel Islands and the surrounding waters house a diverse ecosystem with many endemic species and subspecies. The islands harbor 150 unique species of plants.
Characteristics:
The eight islands are split among the jurisdictions of three California counties: Santa Barbara County (four), Ventura County (two), and Los Angeles County (two). The islands are divided into two groups; the northern Channel Islands and the southern Channel Islands. The four northern Islands used to be a single landmass known as Santa Rosae.
The archipelago extends for 160 miles (257 km) between San Miguel Island in the north and San Clemente Island in the south. Together, the islands’ land area totals 221,331 acres (89,569 ha), or about 346 square miles (900 km2).
Five of the islands (San Miguel, Santa Rosa, Santa Cruz, Anacapa (see image above), and Santa Barbara) were made into the Channel Islands National Park in 1980. The Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary encompasses the waters six nautical miles (11 kilometers; 6.9 miles) off these islands.
Santa Catalina Island is the only one of the eight islands with a significant permanent civilian settlement—the resort city of Avalon, California, and the unincorporated town of Two Harbors. University of Southern California also houses its USC Wrigley Institute for Environmental Studies marine lab in Two Harbors.
The Channel Islands National Park mainland visitor center in Ventura Harbor received 342,000 visitors in 2014. The islands attract around 70,000 tourists a year, mostly during the summer. Visitors can travel to the islands via public boat or airplane transportation.
Camping grounds are available on Anacapa, Santa Rosa, Santa Cruz, San Miguel, and Santa Barbara Islands in the Channel Islands National Park. Attractions include whale watching, hikes, snorkeling, kayaking and camping.
Natural seepage of oil occurs at several places in the Santa Barbara Channel. Tar balls or pieces of tar in small numbers are found in the kelp and on the beaches. Native Americans used naturally occurring tar, bitumen, for a variety of purposes which include roofing, waterproofing, paving and some ceremonial purposes.
The Channel Islands at low elevations are virtually frost-free and constitute one of the few such areas in the 48 contiguous US states. It snows only rarely, on higher mountain peaks.
Islands
Click on image below to be taken to the image contents:
History:
Separated from the California mainland throughout recent geological history, the Channel Islands provide the earliest evidence for human seafaring in the Americas. The northern Channel Islands are now known to have been settled by maritime Paleo-Indian peoples at least 13,000 years ago.
The Arlington Springs Man was discovered in 1960 at Arlington Springs on Santa Rosa Island. The remains were dated to 13,000 years BP.
The Tuqan Man was discovered on San Miguel Island in 2005. His remains were exposed by beach erosion, and were preserved by University of Oregon archeologists. His age was determined to be about 10,000 years.
Archeological sites on the island provide a unique and invaluable record of human interaction with Channel Island marine and terrestrial ecosystems from the late Pleistocene to historic times. The Anacapa Island Archeological District is a 700-acre (280 ha) historic district that was listed on the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) in 1979.
Indigenous peoples:
Historically, the northern islands were occupied by the island Chumash, while the southern islands were occupied by the Tongva.
The earliest known Chumash village site is on Santa Rosa Island. It belongs to the period around 7,500 BP. The Chumash people lived in large villages or towns with up to 1,000 residents. Chumash villages typically contained houses, a sweat lodge, and occasionally had menstrual houses, cemeteries, sacred spaces as well as structures that were for food storage and preparation.
The Chumash people were leaders in the creation of their villages, they had a sociopolitical organization that allowed their villages to be so well preserved and created great social space and village community that lasted even into an excavation of their villages. Soon after, the population density on the islands began to rise.
Significant increase in fish and marine mammal exploitation has been observed. The Tongva people did use many marine artifacts in their daily lives such as shells. They used shells to create beads and while this was not part of their dietary practices it was a very important part of their economy. They used these shell beads as a form of trade to obtain more food from the mainland that they could not cultivate on the island.
Around 2,500 BP (500 BC), there was significant evolution in technology and increasing reliance on fishing. The circular shell fishhooks were increasingly used. Mortars and pestles were manufactured on San Miguel Island for trade with the mainland.
The middens in San Miguel Island showed some of the earliest known fishing hooks and specialized tools for processing seafood. Archaeologists on site CA-SMI-608 found a variety of tools made from chipped stone, bone tools, and beads.
A new type of boat created by the Chumash known as tomol and by the Tongva as te'aats, appeared on the islands around 1,500 BP (500 AD). The boat had become an critical part of Chumash and Tongva culture by 650 AD.
The tomol boats were highly sophisticated boats that were able to transport multiple families across the islands which were valuable to the culture of the Chumash people. The boats were made from tule which made the boats very buoyant and unsinkable.
Modern history:
The Nicoleño:
The Nicoleño were an Uto-Aztecan Native American people who lived on San Nicolas Island in California. The population was "left devastated by a massacre in 1811 by sea otter hunters". The group's last surviving member was given the name Juana Maria, and was born before 1811 and died in 1853. Juana Maria, better known to history as the "Lone Woman of San Nicolas Island" (her native name is unknown), lived alone on San Nicolas Island from 1835 until her removal from the island in 1853, when men discovered her inside a hut made of whalebones and brush.
Juana Maria's fondness for green corn, vegetables, and fresh fruit caused severe attacks of dysentery. In her weakness, she fell from Nidever's porch and injured her spine. On Oct. 18, 1853, only seven weeks after arriving on the mainland, she died of dysentery in Garey, California at age 43. Before she died, Father Sanchez baptized and christened her with the Spanish name Juana Maria. She was buried in an unmarked grave on the Nidever family plot at the Santa Barbara Mission cemetery.
Aleut hunters visited the islands to hunt otters in the early 1800s. The Aleuts purportedly clashed with the native Chumash, killing many over trading disputes. Aleut interactions with the natives were detailed in Scott O'Dell's novel Island of the Blue Dolphins which described the indigenous peoples living on the island.
The Chumash and Tongva were removed from the islands in the early 19th century and taken to Spanish missions and pueblos on the adjacent mainland. For a century, the Channel Islands were used primarily for ranching and fishing activities. Several of the islands were used by whalers in the 1930s to hunt for sperm whales. This had significant impacts on island ecosystems, including the local extinction of sea otters, bald eagles, and other species.
For example, decline in the local otter population led to population growth of their prey, the black abalone. As a result, the Channel Islands became an important stop in the 1850s for Chinese-American fishermen who harvested the abalone and exported them to Hong Kong.
As most of the Channel Islands are managed by federal agencies or conservation groups, the restoration of the island ecosystems has made significant progress. An example of conservation progress has been the bald eagle, which was threatened due to DDT contamination, but whose populations are now recovering.
With the help of scientists from the USC Wrigley Institute for Environmental Studies, the Catalina Island Fox has also recovered from a low of 100 individual foxes to over 1,500 foxes in 2018.
Occasional discussion on the status of the islands has arisen because they (and the Farallon Islands) were not specifically mentioned in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo which ceded northern Mexico to the United States. Citing these perceived legal ambiguities, in at least two cases settlers created unrecognized Micronations there. A 1944 review by the Mexican government apparently concluded that it had no claim to them, and a 1978 maritime treaty with the U.S. formally closed the issue.
In 1972, in "a bit of political theater", twenty-six Brown Berets sailed to Catalina Island on tourist boats, set up a small encampment near the town of Avalon, put up a Mexican flag and claimed the island on behalf of all Chicanos, citing the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo.
Twenty-four days later, sheriff's deputies took everyone back to the mainland.
Military use:
The United States Navy controls San Nicolas Island and San Clemente Island, and has installations elsewhere in the chain. During World War II all of southern California's Channel Islands were put under military control, including the civilian-populated Santa Catalina where tourism was halted and established residents needed permits to travel to and from the mainland.
San Miguel Island was used as a bombing range and Santa Barbara Island as an early warning outpost under the presumed threat of a Japanese attack on California.
San Clemente Island was used to train the Navy's first amphibious force to prepare for Pacific combat against the Japanese in World War II.
San Nicolas Island has been used since 1957 as a launch pad for research rockets.
Santa Rosa Island was used in 1952 as a base for the USAF 669th AC&W Squadron and they operated two Distant Early Warning FPS-10 radars from the hilltops there. In 1955 another FPS-3 search radar was added, and in 1956, a GPS-3 search radar was installed. A new MPS-14 long-range height-finder radar was installed in 1958.
The base was shut down in March 1963, when the 669th was moved to Vandenberg AFB near Lompoc, California. The islands still house US Navy SEALs training facilities, including Naval Auxiliary Landing Field San Clemente Island.
Wildlife:
Main article: Wildlife of the Channel Islands of California
The Channel Islands form part of one of the richest marine ecosystems of the world. Many unique species of plants and animals are endemic to the Channel Islands, including fauna such as the Channel Islands spotted skunk, ashy storm-petrel, and flora including a unique subspecies of Torrey pine.
Separated from the California mainland throughout recent geological history, the Channel Islands provide the earliest evidence for human seafaring in the Americas. The northern Channel Islands are now known to have been settled by maritime Paleo-Indian peoples at least 13,000 years ago.
The Arlington Springs Man was discovered in 1960 at Arlington Springs on Santa Rosa Island. The remains were dated to 13,000 years BP.
The Tuqan Man was discovered on San Miguel Island in 2005. His remains were exposed by beach erosion, and were preserved by University of Oregon archeologists. His age was determined to be about 10,000 years.
Archeological sites on the island provide a unique and invaluable record of human interaction with Channel Island marine and terrestrial ecosystems from the late Pleistocene to historic times. The Anacapa Island Archeological District is a 700-acre (280 ha) historic district that was listed on the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) in 1979.
Indigenous peoples:
Historically, the northern islands were occupied by the island Chumash, while the southern islands were occupied by the Tongva.
The earliest known Chumash village site is on Santa Rosa Island. It belongs to the period around 7,500 BP. The Chumash people lived in large villages or towns with up to 1,000 residents. Chumash villages typically contained houses, a sweat lodge, and occasionally had menstrual houses, cemeteries, sacred spaces as well as structures that were for food storage and preparation.
The Chumash people were leaders in the creation of their villages, they had a sociopolitical organization that allowed their villages to be so well preserved and created great social space and village community that lasted even into an excavation of their villages. Soon after, the population density on the islands began to rise.
Significant increase in fish and marine mammal exploitation has been observed. The Tongva people did use many marine artifacts in their daily lives such as shells. They used shells to create beads and while this was not part of their dietary practices it was a very important part of their economy. They used these shell beads as a form of trade to obtain more food from the mainland that they could not cultivate on the island.
Around 2,500 BP (500 BC), there was significant evolution in technology and increasing reliance on fishing. The circular shell fishhooks were increasingly used. Mortars and pestles were manufactured on San Miguel Island for trade with the mainland.
The middens in San Miguel Island showed some of the earliest known fishing hooks and specialized tools for processing seafood. Archaeologists on site CA-SMI-608 found a variety of tools made from chipped stone, bone tools, and beads.
A new type of boat created by the Chumash known as tomol and by the Tongva as te'aats, appeared on the islands around 1,500 BP (500 AD). The boat had become an critical part of Chumash and Tongva culture by 650 AD.
The tomol boats were highly sophisticated boats that were able to transport multiple families across the islands which were valuable to the culture of the Chumash people. The boats were made from tule which made the boats very buoyant and unsinkable.
Modern history:
The Nicoleño:
The Nicoleño were an Uto-Aztecan Native American people who lived on San Nicolas Island in California. The population was "left devastated by a massacre in 1811 by sea otter hunters". The group's last surviving member was given the name Juana Maria, and was born before 1811 and died in 1853. Juana Maria, better known to history as the "Lone Woman of San Nicolas Island" (her native name is unknown), lived alone on San Nicolas Island from 1835 until her removal from the island in 1853, when men discovered her inside a hut made of whalebones and brush.
Juana Maria's fondness for green corn, vegetables, and fresh fruit caused severe attacks of dysentery. In her weakness, she fell from Nidever's porch and injured her spine. On Oct. 18, 1853, only seven weeks after arriving on the mainland, she died of dysentery in Garey, California at age 43. Before she died, Father Sanchez baptized and christened her with the Spanish name Juana Maria. She was buried in an unmarked grave on the Nidever family plot at the Santa Barbara Mission cemetery.
Aleut hunters visited the islands to hunt otters in the early 1800s. The Aleuts purportedly clashed with the native Chumash, killing many over trading disputes. Aleut interactions with the natives were detailed in Scott O'Dell's novel Island of the Blue Dolphins which described the indigenous peoples living on the island.
The Chumash and Tongva were removed from the islands in the early 19th century and taken to Spanish missions and pueblos on the adjacent mainland. For a century, the Channel Islands were used primarily for ranching and fishing activities. Several of the islands were used by whalers in the 1930s to hunt for sperm whales. This had significant impacts on island ecosystems, including the local extinction of sea otters, bald eagles, and other species.
For example, decline in the local otter population led to population growth of their prey, the black abalone. As a result, the Channel Islands became an important stop in the 1850s for Chinese-American fishermen who harvested the abalone and exported them to Hong Kong.
As most of the Channel Islands are managed by federal agencies or conservation groups, the restoration of the island ecosystems has made significant progress. An example of conservation progress has been the bald eagle, which was threatened due to DDT contamination, but whose populations are now recovering.
With the help of scientists from the USC Wrigley Institute for Environmental Studies, the Catalina Island Fox has also recovered from a low of 100 individual foxes to over 1,500 foxes in 2018.
Occasional discussion on the status of the islands has arisen because they (and the Farallon Islands) were not specifically mentioned in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo which ceded northern Mexico to the United States. Citing these perceived legal ambiguities, in at least two cases settlers created unrecognized Micronations there. A 1944 review by the Mexican government apparently concluded that it had no claim to them, and a 1978 maritime treaty with the U.S. formally closed the issue.
In 1972, in "a bit of political theater", twenty-six Brown Berets sailed to Catalina Island on tourist boats, set up a small encampment near the town of Avalon, put up a Mexican flag and claimed the island on behalf of all Chicanos, citing the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo.
Twenty-four days later, sheriff's deputies took everyone back to the mainland.
Military use:
The United States Navy controls San Nicolas Island and San Clemente Island, and has installations elsewhere in the chain. During World War II all of southern California's Channel Islands were put under military control, including the civilian-populated Santa Catalina where tourism was halted and established residents needed permits to travel to and from the mainland.
San Miguel Island was used as a bombing range and Santa Barbara Island as an early warning outpost under the presumed threat of a Japanese attack on California.
San Clemente Island was used to train the Navy's first amphibious force to prepare for Pacific combat against the Japanese in World War II.
San Nicolas Island has been used since 1957 as a launch pad for research rockets.
Santa Rosa Island was used in 1952 as a base for the USAF 669th AC&W Squadron and they operated two Distant Early Warning FPS-10 radars from the hilltops there. In 1955 another FPS-3 search radar was added, and in 1956, a GPS-3 search radar was installed. A new MPS-14 long-range height-finder radar was installed in 1958.
The base was shut down in March 1963, when the 669th was moved to Vandenberg AFB near Lompoc, California. The islands still house US Navy SEALs training facilities, including Naval Auxiliary Landing Field San Clemente Island.
Wildlife:
Main article: Wildlife of the Channel Islands of California
The Channel Islands form part of one of the richest marine ecosystems of the world. Many unique species of plants and animals are endemic to the Channel Islands, including fauna such as the Channel Islands spotted skunk, ashy storm-petrel, and flora including a unique subspecies of Torrey pine.
Flora:
Flora on the Channel Islands include a unique subspecies of pine, oak, and the island tree mallow. Santa Rosa Island holds two groves of the Torrey pine subspecies Pinus torreyana var. insularis, which is endemic to the island. Torrey pines are the United States' rarest pine species.
The islands also house many rare and endangered species of plants, including the island barberry, the island rushrose, and the Santa Cruz Island lace pod. Giant kelp forests surround the islands and act as a source of nutrition and protection for other animals.
Invasive species, such as the Australian blue gum tree, olive tree, sweet fennel, and Harding grass, threaten native species through competition for light, nutrients, and water.
The Australian blue gum, for example, releases toxins in its leaf litter which prevents other species of plants from growing in the soil surrounding it. The blue gum, as well as other species including the Harding grass, are much more flammable and better adapted to wildfires than native species.
Earthworms, thought to have come from mainland topsoil imported for road construction, are altering the unique ecosystem and microbial communities on San Clemente Island, threatening biodiversity. In this formerly earthworm-free region, they change the distribution of plants and vegetation, making it possible for non-native plants to invade.
Fauna:
The Channel Islands and the waters surrounding hold many endemic species of animals, including fauna such as:
Two breeds of livestock, the Santa Cruz sheep and the San Clemente Island goat originate from here.
Many species of large marine mammals, including:
Seabirds, including: use the islands as well for shelter and breeding grounds.
The endemic island fox is California's smallest natural canine and has rebounded from its near extinction in the late 1990s.
Several endemic reptile and amphibian species live on the islands, including:
Thousands of years ago, pygmy mammoths and short-faced bears could also be found on the islands, despite being extinct today. The Channel Islands also had a huge population of shellfish during this time that every part of utilized. The abalone was so important the native peoples started to farm abalone based to get a higher yield.
Conservation:
Terrestrial:
Terrestrial conservation efforts are being made to maintain the islands' endemic species. Feral livestock, including pigs, goats, and sheep, pose a threat to many of the species, including the San Clemente loggerhead shrike and Channel Islands spotted skunk.
The National Park Service eradicated the feral pigs on Santa Rosa and Santa Cruz islands during the 1990s and on Santa Catalina Island in 2007.
Introduced pathogens have devastated island species due to isolation from the mainland. In 1998, an outbreak of canine distemper swept through Santa Catalina Island severely reducing the island skunk and fox populations. Rabies and distemper vaccination programs were initiated to protect the island's wildlife. Canine distemper is thought to have been brought to the islands on a stowaway raccoon or a domestic dog.
In the 1950s, bald eagles and peregrine falcons on the Channel Islands became locally extinct after widespread use of pesticides such as DDT. The birds ingest contaminated fish and seabirds which poisons the adults and weakens their eggs.
Golden eagles, which are natural competitors of other birds of prey, do not primarily feed on these animals and were able to colonize the islands in the early 1990s. In the early 2000s, golden eagles were live trapped and relocated.
In 2002 and 2006 breeding pairs of bald eagles were reintroduced to the northern islands. Later in 2006, the introduced adult eagles hatched chicks on the islands for the first time since their extinction. The Channel Islands National Park established a bald eagle webcam on their website in 2007.
Marine:
The California Channel Islands Marine Sanctuary consists of thirteen Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) around the five islands of the Channel Islands National Park. Combined, these smaller thirteen zones are 124,676 acres in size. Eleven of the zones are no-take and harvest areas and the remaining two marine conservation areas allow limited take of lobster and pelagic fish.
Although there is a no-take policy, tourists are allowed to visit and observe the beautiful biodiversity. With this, there are several restrictions that limit the type and weight of gear tourists are allowed to bring including transportation–only park/private boats or planes are permitted to enter, fuel transportation, etc.
In order to enforce these restrictions and preserve the MPA, the Channel Island National Marine Sanctuary Advisory Council is in charge of state waters including hiring employees and park workers. The federal waters remain under the control and protection of National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).
The California Channel Islands Marine Sanctuary has been moderately successful as shown in a ten-year study done by the Partnership for Interdisciplinary Studies of Coastal Oceans (PISCO). From years 2003–2013, the MPA network implemented caused fish species to increase in biomass in terms of both size, numbers, and weight per area.
This increase in fish population was seen both in the MPA and as spillover in the regions outside of these thirteen zones. Given the most recent General Management Plan, passed in April 2015, this MPA will continue to be monitored and protected for the next twenty to forty years in hopes of continuing its successful pattern of restoring biodiversity.
Due to Black Abalone (Haliotis Cracherodii) being native species to the Channel Islands being overly harvested for thousands of years, their populations are now low making them an endangered species by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Fisheries since October 2011.
In popular culture:
See also:
Flora on the Channel Islands include a unique subspecies of pine, oak, and the island tree mallow. Santa Rosa Island holds two groves of the Torrey pine subspecies Pinus torreyana var. insularis, which is endemic to the island. Torrey pines are the United States' rarest pine species.
The islands also house many rare and endangered species of plants, including the island barberry, the island rushrose, and the Santa Cruz Island lace pod. Giant kelp forests surround the islands and act as a source of nutrition and protection for other animals.
Invasive species, such as the Australian blue gum tree, olive tree, sweet fennel, and Harding grass, threaten native species through competition for light, nutrients, and water.
The Australian blue gum, for example, releases toxins in its leaf litter which prevents other species of plants from growing in the soil surrounding it. The blue gum, as well as other species including the Harding grass, are much more flammable and better adapted to wildfires than native species.
Earthworms, thought to have come from mainland topsoil imported for road construction, are altering the unique ecosystem and microbial communities on San Clemente Island, threatening biodiversity. In this formerly earthworm-free region, they change the distribution of plants and vegetation, making it possible for non-native plants to invade.
Fauna:
The Channel Islands and the waters surrounding hold many endemic species of animals, including fauna such as:
- the Channel Islands spotted skunk,
- island scrub jay,
- ashy storm-petrel,
- San Clemente loggerhead shrike,
- and the San Clemente sage sparrow.
Two breeds of livestock, the Santa Cruz sheep and the San Clemente Island goat originate from here.
Many species of large marine mammals, including:
- pacific gray whales,
- blue whales,
- humpback whales,
- and California sea lions
Seabirds, including: use the islands as well for shelter and breeding grounds.
The endemic island fox is California's smallest natural canine and has rebounded from its near extinction in the late 1990s.
Several endemic reptile and amphibian species live on the islands, including:
Thousands of years ago, pygmy mammoths and short-faced bears could also be found on the islands, despite being extinct today. The Channel Islands also had a huge population of shellfish during this time that every part of utilized. The abalone was so important the native peoples started to farm abalone based to get a higher yield.
Conservation:
Terrestrial:
Terrestrial conservation efforts are being made to maintain the islands' endemic species. Feral livestock, including pigs, goats, and sheep, pose a threat to many of the species, including the San Clemente loggerhead shrike and Channel Islands spotted skunk.
The National Park Service eradicated the feral pigs on Santa Rosa and Santa Cruz islands during the 1990s and on Santa Catalina Island in 2007.
Introduced pathogens have devastated island species due to isolation from the mainland. In 1998, an outbreak of canine distemper swept through Santa Catalina Island severely reducing the island skunk and fox populations. Rabies and distemper vaccination programs were initiated to protect the island's wildlife. Canine distemper is thought to have been brought to the islands on a stowaway raccoon or a domestic dog.
In the 1950s, bald eagles and peregrine falcons on the Channel Islands became locally extinct after widespread use of pesticides such as DDT. The birds ingest contaminated fish and seabirds which poisons the adults and weakens their eggs.
Golden eagles, which are natural competitors of other birds of prey, do not primarily feed on these animals and were able to colonize the islands in the early 1990s. In the early 2000s, golden eagles were live trapped and relocated.
In 2002 and 2006 breeding pairs of bald eagles were reintroduced to the northern islands. Later in 2006, the introduced adult eagles hatched chicks on the islands for the first time since their extinction. The Channel Islands National Park established a bald eagle webcam on their website in 2007.
Marine:
The California Channel Islands Marine Sanctuary consists of thirteen Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) around the five islands of the Channel Islands National Park. Combined, these smaller thirteen zones are 124,676 acres in size. Eleven of the zones are no-take and harvest areas and the remaining two marine conservation areas allow limited take of lobster and pelagic fish.
Although there is a no-take policy, tourists are allowed to visit and observe the beautiful biodiversity. With this, there are several restrictions that limit the type and weight of gear tourists are allowed to bring including transportation–only park/private boats or planes are permitted to enter, fuel transportation, etc.
In order to enforce these restrictions and preserve the MPA, the Channel Island National Marine Sanctuary Advisory Council is in charge of state waters including hiring employees and park workers. The federal waters remain under the control and protection of National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).
The California Channel Islands Marine Sanctuary has been moderately successful as shown in a ten-year study done by the Partnership for Interdisciplinary Studies of Coastal Oceans (PISCO). From years 2003–2013, the MPA network implemented caused fish species to increase in biomass in terms of both size, numbers, and weight per area.
This increase in fish population was seen both in the MPA and as spillover in the regions outside of these thirteen zones. Given the most recent General Management Plan, passed in April 2015, this MPA will continue to be monitored and protected for the next twenty to forty years in hopes of continuing its successful pattern of restoring biodiversity.
Due to Black Abalone (Haliotis Cracherodii) being native species to the Channel Islands being overly harvested for thousands of years, their populations are now low making them an endangered species by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Fisheries since October 2011.
In popular culture:
- "26 Miles (Santa Catalina)" is a 1957 pop song by The Four Preps about Santa Catalina Island. The song has been used in tourism advertisements and the 2018 film Bad Times at the El Royale.
- Aerial combat scenes for the 1970s television show Black Sheep Squadron were filmed above and around the islands.
- Some scenes for the season three finale of American crime drama Bosch were set on Santa Cruz Island. Filming occurred on Santa Catalina Island.
- Scott O’Dell's novel for young adults titled Island of the Blue Dolphins is based on the story of a Nicoleño woman living alone on one of the remote Channel Islands in the 19th century.
- The Glass Bottom Boat, which takes place on Santa Catalina Island, is a 1966 romantic comedy starring Doris Day and Rod Taylor.
- Catalina Caper, which takes place on Santa Catalina Island, is a 1967 beach party/heist movie starring Tommy Kirk and featuring Little Richard.
- San Miguel is a 2012 historical novel by T. C. Boyle about two separate attempts by families to operate commercial livestock ranches on the northern island of San Miguel, one in the late 19th century and the other in the mid-20th.
See also:
- Guadalupe Island and the Coronado Islands of Baja California, Mexico share the California chaparral and woodlands ecoregion with the Channel Islands
- Dwarf elephant on the Channel Islands of California
- List of islands of California
- Channel Islands National Park
- Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary
- Channel Islands (California) travel guide from Wikivoyage
- Google Earth view
Adventure Travel
- YouTube Video: What Is Adventure Tourism?
- YouTube Video: Navigating the World of Adventure Travel with Alice Ford
- YouTube Video: The Thrill of Adventure: Colorado Bend State Park's Wild Cave Tour
- Top Left: Hot Air Balloon.
- Top Right: Photography by Helicopter
- Bottom Left: Mountain Climbing
- Bottom Right: Bunjee Jumping
Adventure travel is a type of niche tourism, involving exploration or travel with a certain degree of risk (real or perceived), and which may require special skills and physical exertion.
In the United States, adventure tourism has grown in recent decades as tourists seek out-of-the-ordinary or "roads less traveled" vacations, but lack of a clear operational definition has hampered measurement of market size and growth.
According to the U.S.-based Adventure Travel Trade Association, adventure travel may be any tourist activity that includes physical activity, a cultural exchange, and connection with outdoor activities and nature.
Adventure tourists may have the motivation to achieve mental states characterized as rush or flow, resulting from stepping outside their comfort zone. This may be from experiencing culture shock or by performing acts requiring significant effort and involve some degree of risk, real or perceived, or physical danger. This may include activities such as;
Some obscure forms of adventure travel include disaster and ghetto tourism. Other rising forms of adventure travel include social and jungle tourism.
Access to inexpensive consumer technology, with respect to Global Positioning Systems, flashpacking, social networking and photography, have increased the worldwide interest in adventure travel.
The interest in independent adventure travel has also increased as more specialist travel websites emerge offering previously niche locations and sports.
Adventure sports tourism has traditionally been dominated by men. Although women's participation has grown, the gender gap is still pronounced in terms of quantitative engagement in these forms of sport tourism. Yet, in competitive adventure sport tourism, the success rate of females is currently higher than that of males.
History:
Since ancient times, humans have traveled in search for food and skills of survival, but have also engaged in adventurous travel, in explorations of sea lanes, a destination, or even a new country.
Adventurer travelers began to push to the limits, with the mountaineering of Matterhorn in 1865 and the river rafting on the Colorado River in 1869.
Shortly after, two key institutions were formed, including the National Geographic Society and the Explorers Club, which continue to support adventure travel.
At the end of World War II, modern adventure began to take off, with 1950 French Annapurna expedition and the 1953 British Mount Everest expedition. Today, it remains a niche of travel and a fast-changing sector with new variants of activities for a travel experience.
Types:
Accessible tourism:
Main article: Accessible tourism
There is a trend for developing tourism specifically for the disabled. Adventure travel for the disabled has become a US$13 billion a year industry in North America. Some adventure travel destinations offer diverse programs and job opportunities developed specifically for the disabled.
Extreme travel:
Main article: Extreme tourism
Extreme tourism involves travel to dangerous (extreme) locations or participation in dangerous events or activities. This form of tourism can overlap with extreme sport.
Jungle tourism:
Main article: Jungle tourism
Jungle tourism is a subcategory of adventure travel defined by active multifaceted physical means of travel in the jungle regions of the earth.
According to the Glossary of Tourism Terms, jungle tours have become a major component of green tourism in tropical destinations and are a relatively recent phenomenon of Western international tourism.
Overland travel:
Main article: Overlanding
Overland travel or overlanding refers to an overland journey – perhaps originating with Marco Polo's first overland expedition in the 13th century from Venice to the Mongolian court of Kublai Khan.
Today overlanding is a form of extended adventure holiday, embarking on a long journey, often in a group. Overland companies provide a converted truck or a bus plus a tour leader, and the group travels together overland for a period of weeks or months.
Since the 1960s overlanding has been a popular means of travel between destinations across Africa, Europe, Asia (particularly India), the Americas and Australia. The "Hippie trail" of the 60s and 70s saw thousands of young westerners travelling through the Middle East to India and Nepal.
Many of the older traditional routes are still active, along with newer routes like Iceland to South Africa overland and Central Asian post soviet states.
Scuba diving:
Main article: Scuba diving
Scuba diving is a sport in which participants explore underwater places while inhaling compressed air from tanks. Scuba diving is most popular in locations with tropical coral reefs, but it may be found in almost any location with water.
Popular scuba diving destinations:
See also:
In the United States, adventure tourism has grown in recent decades as tourists seek out-of-the-ordinary or "roads less traveled" vacations, but lack of a clear operational definition has hampered measurement of market size and growth.
According to the U.S.-based Adventure Travel Trade Association, adventure travel may be any tourist activity that includes physical activity, a cultural exchange, and connection with outdoor activities and nature.
Adventure tourists may have the motivation to achieve mental states characterized as rush or flow, resulting from stepping outside their comfort zone. This may be from experiencing culture shock or by performing acts requiring significant effort and involve some degree of risk, real or perceived, or physical danger. This may include activities such as;
- mountaineering,
- trekking,
- bungee jumping,
- mountain biking,
- cycling,
- canoeing,
- scuba diving,
- rafting,
- kayaking,
- zip-lining,
- paragliding,
- hiking,
- exploring,
- Geocaching,
- canyoneering,
- sandboarding,
- caving,
- and rock climbing.
Some obscure forms of adventure travel include disaster and ghetto tourism. Other rising forms of adventure travel include social and jungle tourism.
Access to inexpensive consumer technology, with respect to Global Positioning Systems, flashpacking, social networking and photography, have increased the worldwide interest in adventure travel.
The interest in independent adventure travel has also increased as more specialist travel websites emerge offering previously niche locations and sports.
Adventure sports tourism has traditionally been dominated by men. Although women's participation has grown, the gender gap is still pronounced in terms of quantitative engagement in these forms of sport tourism. Yet, in competitive adventure sport tourism, the success rate of females is currently higher than that of males.
History:
Since ancient times, humans have traveled in search for food and skills of survival, but have also engaged in adventurous travel, in explorations of sea lanes, a destination, or even a new country.
Adventurer travelers began to push to the limits, with the mountaineering of Matterhorn in 1865 and the river rafting on the Colorado River in 1869.
Shortly after, two key institutions were formed, including the National Geographic Society and the Explorers Club, which continue to support adventure travel.
At the end of World War II, modern adventure began to take off, with 1950 French Annapurna expedition and the 1953 British Mount Everest expedition. Today, it remains a niche of travel and a fast-changing sector with new variants of activities for a travel experience.
Types:
Accessible tourism:
Main article: Accessible tourism
There is a trend for developing tourism specifically for the disabled. Adventure travel for the disabled has become a US$13 billion a year industry in North America. Some adventure travel destinations offer diverse programs and job opportunities developed specifically for the disabled.
Extreme travel:
Main article: Extreme tourism
Extreme tourism involves travel to dangerous (extreme) locations or participation in dangerous events or activities. This form of tourism can overlap with extreme sport.
Jungle tourism:
Main article: Jungle tourism
Jungle tourism is a subcategory of adventure travel defined by active multifaceted physical means of travel in the jungle regions of the earth.
According to the Glossary of Tourism Terms, jungle tours have become a major component of green tourism in tropical destinations and are a relatively recent phenomenon of Western international tourism.
Overland travel:
Main article: Overlanding
Overland travel or overlanding refers to an overland journey – perhaps originating with Marco Polo's first overland expedition in the 13th century from Venice to the Mongolian court of Kublai Khan.
Today overlanding is a form of extended adventure holiday, embarking on a long journey, often in a group. Overland companies provide a converted truck or a bus plus a tour leader, and the group travels together overland for a period of weeks or months.
Since the 1960s overlanding has been a popular means of travel between destinations across Africa, Europe, Asia (particularly India), the Americas and Australia. The "Hippie trail" of the 60s and 70s saw thousands of young westerners travelling through the Middle East to India and Nepal.
Many of the older traditional routes are still active, along with newer routes like Iceland to South Africa overland and Central Asian post soviet states.
Scuba diving:
Main article: Scuba diving
Scuba diving is a sport in which participants explore underwater places while inhaling compressed air from tanks. Scuba diving is most popular in locations with tropical coral reefs, but it may be found in almost any location with water.
Popular scuba diving destinations:
- Belize's Great Blue Hole
- Tahiti
- Sipadan Island's Barracuda Point
See also:
- Media related to Adventure travel at Wikimedia Commons
- Scuba divers swim among the sharks, Fayetteville Observer
Archaeological Tourism
- YouTube Video about Archaeological Tourism
- YouTube Video: Giza, Egypt: The Pyramids and Great Sphinx - Rick Steves’ Europe Travel Guide - Travel Bite
- YouTube Video: Crossing South Bite Size: Exploring the History of the Teotihuacan Pyramids in Mexico City
- Top Left: Great Sphinx of Giza
- Top Right: Machu Picchu
- Bottom Left: Pompeii: get to know Italy’s legendary ruined city
- Bottom Right: Easter Island Moai Statues
Archaeotourism or Archaeological tourism is a form of cultural tourism, which aims to promote public interest in archaeology and the conservation of historical sites.
Activities:
Archaeological tourism can include all products associated with public archaeological promotion, including visits to:
Impact:
Archaeological tourism promotes archaeological sites and an area's cultural heritage. Its intent is to not cause more damage to the sites, thus avoiding becoming invasive tourism.
Archaeologists have expressed concerns that tourism encourages particular ways of seeing and knowing the past. When archaeological sites are run by tourist boards, ticket fees and souvenir revenues can become a priority. The tradeoff between opening a site to the public or remaining closed and keeping the site out of harm's way should be assessed.
Damage to irreplaceable archaeological materials is not only direct, as when remains are disordered, altered, destroyed, or looted, but often an indirect result of poorly planned development of tourism amenities, such as hotels, restaurants, roads, and shops. These can alter the environment producing flooding, landslides, or undermining ancient structures.
Notable sites:
See also:
Activities:
Archaeological tourism can include all products associated with public archaeological promotion, including visits to:
- archaeological sites,
- museums,
- interpretation centers,
- reenactments of historical occurrences,
- and the rediscovery of
- indigenous products,
- festivals,
- or theaters.
Impact:
Archaeological tourism promotes archaeological sites and an area's cultural heritage. Its intent is to not cause more damage to the sites, thus avoiding becoming invasive tourism.
Archaeologists have expressed concerns that tourism encourages particular ways of seeing and knowing the past. When archaeological sites are run by tourist boards, ticket fees and souvenir revenues can become a priority. The tradeoff between opening a site to the public or remaining closed and keeping the site out of harm's way should be assessed.
Damage to irreplaceable archaeological materials is not only direct, as when remains are disordered, altered, destroyed, or looted, but often an indirect result of poorly planned development of tourism amenities, such as hotels, restaurants, roads, and shops. These can alter the environment producing flooding, landslides, or undermining ancient structures.
Notable sites:
- In Oman, the Ministry of Heritage and Culture sponsored a project at the village of Imti with artist Maryam Al Zadjali, entitled “To Immortalise the Archaeological Moment in Art.” The project encouraged tourism to the village, through the installation of artistic interventions such as wall-paintings.
See also:
- ArqueotuR (2010) Institutional network for the promotion of archaeological tourism and local development. Co-ordinated by the University of Barcelona.
- The AIA-ATTA Guide To Best Practices For Archaeological Tourism
Heritage Tourism
- YouTube Video about Heritage Tourism
- YouTube Video: Heritage Webinar, Historic Buildings
- YouTube Video: World Heritage Sites: How are they selected? | Inside Story
- Top Left: Wakeup Call: Let us be Passionate About Heritage Tourism
- Top Right: Taj Mahal, India
- Bottom Left: The Great Wall of China
- Bottom Right: About Heritage Tourism in Sikkim
Cultural heritage tourism (or just heritage tourism) is a branch of tourism oriented towards the cultural heritage of the location where tourism is occurring. The National Trust for Historic Preservation in the United States defines heritage tourism as "traveling to experience the places, artifacts and activities that authentically represent the stories and people of the past", and "heritage tourism can include cultural, historic and natural resources".
Culture and heritage tourism:
Culture has always been a major part of travel, as the development of the Grand Tour from the 16th century onwards attests. In the 20th century, some people have claimed, culture ceased to be the objective of tourism; tourism is now culture. Cultural attractions play an important role in tourism at all levels, from the global highlights of world culture to attractions that underpin local identities.
Culture, heritage and the arts have long contributed to appeal of tourist destination. However, in recent years 'culture' has been rediscovered as an important marketing tool to attract those travellers with special interests in heritage and arts.
According to Keith Hollinshead, cultural heritage tourism defines as cultural heritage tourism is the fastest growing segment of the tourism industry because there is a trend toward an increase specialization among tourists. This trend is evident in the rise in the volume of tourists who seek adventure, culture, history, archaeology and interaction with local people.
Cultural heritage tourism is important for various reasons. It has a positive economic and social impact, it establishes and reinforces identity, it helps preserve the cultural heritage, with culture as an instrument it facilitates harmony and understanding among people, it supports culture and helps renew tourism.
As Benjamin Porter and Noel B. Salazar have ethnographically documented, however, cultural heritage tourism can also create tensions and even conflict between the different stakeholders involved.
Tourism and heritage are collaborative phenomena, as tourism has played a central role in the emergence and later affirmation of heritage in the modern sense. For example, in the 19th century the concept of a historical monument emerged in the Western world accompanied by tourism.
Sustainable development:
Cultural heritage tourism has a number of objectives that must be met within the context of sustainable development. These are the conservation of cultural resources, accurate interpretation of resources, authentic visitors experience, and the stimulation of the earned revenues of cultural resources.
We can see, therefore, that cultural heritage tourism is not only concerned with identification, management and protection of the heritage values but it must also be involved in understanding the impact of tourism on communities and regions, achieving economic and social benefits, providing financial resources for protection, as well as marketing and promotion.
Industrial heritage:
Heritage tourism involves visiting historical or industrial sites that may include old canals, railways, battlegrounds, military sites, etc. The overall purpose is to gain an appreciation of the past.
Tribalism:
Gopal Neelkanth Dandekar, a renowned Marathi writer, used to arrange hiking tours to forts in Maharashtra, to explore the sights closely linked to Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj and his achievements.
Immigration:
Decolonization and immigration form the major background of much contemporary heritage tourism. Falling travel costs have also made heritage tourism possible for more people.
Another possible form involves religious travel or pilgrimages. Many Catholics from around the world come to the Vatican and other sites such as Lourdes or Fátima. Islam commands its followers to take the hajj to Mecca, thus differentiating it somewhat from tourism in the usual sense, though the trip can also be a culturally important event for the pilgrim.
Heritage tourism can also be attributed to historical events that have been dramatised to make them more entertaining. For example, a historical tour of a town or city using a theme such as ghosts or Vikings. Heritage tourism focuses on certain historical events, rather than presenting a balanced view of that historical period.
Its aim may not always be the presentation of accurate historical facts, as opposed to economically developing the site and surrounding area. As a result, heritage tourism can be seen as a blend of education, entertainment, preservation and profit.
Indigenous peoples:
Anthropology and Ethnology were two major disciplines interested by the life of aborigines, their customs and political structures. Although the first fieldworkers were not interested in expanding the colonization of main European powers, the fact was that their notes, books and field-work were employed by colonial officials to understand the aboriginal mind.
From that moment on, anthropology developed a strange fascination for the Other's culture. The concepts of heritage and colonization were inextricably intertwined.
Another problem with heritage tourism is the effect on indigenous peoples whose land and culture is being visited by tourists. If the indigenous people are not a part of the majority, or ruling power in the country, they may not benefit from the tourism as greatly as they should.
For example, in Mexico tourism has increased because of the predicted end of the Maya Calendar. However, some activists claim the indigenous Maya are not benefitting from the increased traffic through the ruins and other cultural landmarks.
Promotion and facilitation:
Heritage tourism is supported by municipalities through promotion and tourist information in many countries and their administrative units, e.g. cities such as the Polish Bydgoszcz or Warsaw.
There are also many forms of presenting selected tourist topics in a harmonized way, for instance European Route of Brick Gothic and many others (Cultural Route of the Council of Europe).
See also:
Culture and heritage tourism:
Culture has always been a major part of travel, as the development of the Grand Tour from the 16th century onwards attests. In the 20th century, some people have claimed, culture ceased to be the objective of tourism; tourism is now culture. Cultural attractions play an important role in tourism at all levels, from the global highlights of world culture to attractions that underpin local identities.
Culture, heritage and the arts have long contributed to appeal of tourist destination. However, in recent years 'culture' has been rediscovered as an important marketing tool to attract those travellers with special interests in heritage and arts.
According to Keith Hollinshead, cultural heritage tourism defines as cultural heritage tourism is the fastest growing segment of the tourism industry because there is a trend toward an increase specialization among tourists. This trend is evident in the rise in the volume of tourists who seek adventure, culture, history, archaeology and interaction with local people.
Cultural heritage tourism is important for various reasons. It has a positive economic and social impact, it establishes and reinforces identity, it helps preserve the cultural heritage, with culture as an instrument it facilitates harmony and understanding among people, it supports culture and helps renew tourism.
As Benjamin Porter and Noel B. Salazar have ethnographically documented, however, cultural heritage tourism can also create tensions and even conflict between the different stakeholders involved.
Tourism and heritage are collaborative phenomena, as tourism has played a central role in the emergence and later affirmation of heritage in the modern sense. For example, in the 19th century the concept of a historical monument emerged in the Western world accompanied by tourism.
Sustainable development:
Cultural heritage tourism has a number of objectives that must be met within the context of sustainable development. These are the conservation of cultural resources, accurate interpretation of resources, authentic visitors experience, and the stimulation of the earned revenues of cultural resources.
We can see, therefore, that cultural heritage tourism is not only concerned with identification, management and protection of the heritage values but it must also be involved in understanding the impact of tourism on communities and regions, achieving economic and social benefits, providing financial resources for protection, as well as marketing and promotion.
Industrial heritage:
Heritage tourism involves visiting historical or industrial sites that may include old canals, railways, battlegrounds, military sites, etc. The overall purpose is to gain an appreciation of the past.
Tribalism:
Gopal Neelkanth Dandekar, a renowned Marathi writer, used to arrange hiking tours to forts in Maharashtra, to explore the sights closely linked to Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj and his achievements.
Immigration:
Decolonization and immigration form the major background of much contemporary heritage tourism. Falling travel costs have also made heritage tourism possible for more people.
Another possible form involves religious travel or pilgrimages. Many Catholics from around the world come to the Vatican and other sites such as Lourdes or Fátima. Islam commands its followers to take the hajj to Mecca, thus differentiating it somewhat from tourism in the usual sense, though the trip can also be a culturally important event for the pilgrim.
Heritage tourism can also be attributed to historical events that have been dramatised to make them more entertaining. For example, a historical tour of a town or city using a theme such as ghosts or Vikings. Heritage tourism focuses on certain historical events, rather than presenting a balanced view of that historical period.
Its aim may not always be the presentation of accurate historical facts, as opposed to economically developing the site and surrounding area. As a result, heritage tourism can be seen as a blend of education, entertainment, preservation and profit.
Indigenous peoples:
Anthropology and Ethnology were two major disciplines interested by the life of aborigines, their customs and political structures. Although the first fieldworkers were not interested in expanding the colonization of main European powers, the fact was that their notes, books and field-work were employed by colonial officials to understand the aboriginal mind.
From that moment on, anthropology developed a strange fascination for the Other's culture. The concepts of heritage and colonization were inextricably intertwined.
Another problem with heritage tourism is the effect on indigenous peoples whose land and culture is being visited by tourists. If the indigenous people are not a part of the majority, or ruling power in the country, they may not benefit from the tourism as greatly as they should.
For example, in Mexico tourism has increased because of the predicted end of the Maya Calendar. However, some activists claim the indigenous Maya are not benefitting from the increased traffic through the ruins and other cultural landmarks.
Promotion and facilitation:
Heritage tourism is supported by municipalities through promotion and tourist information in many countries and their administrative units, e.g. cities such as the Polish Bydgoszcz or Warsaw.
There are also many forms of presenting selected tourist topics in a harmonized way, for instance European Route of Brick Gothic and many others (Cultural Route of the Council of Europe).
See also:
Space Tourism
Pictured below: Inside SpaceX Starship SN15 (See also below)
- YouTube of William Shatner* Going Into Space On Blue Origin Flight
- YouTube Video: Elon Musk Explains SpaceX's Raptor Engine!
- YouTube Video: SpaceX Nails Landing of Reusable Rocket on Land
Pictured below: Inside SpaceX Starship SN15 (See also below)
Space tourism is human space travel for recreational purposes. There are several different types of space tourism, including orbital, suborbital and lunar space tourism.
During the period from 2001 to 2009, seven space tourists made eight space flights aboard a Russian Soyuz spacecraft to the International Space Station, brokered by Space Adventures in conjunction with Roscosmos and RSC Energia.
The publicized price was in the range of US$20–25 million per trip. Some space tourists have signed contracts with third parties to conduct certain research activities while in orbit. By 2007, space tourism was thought to be one of the earliest markets that would emerge for commercial spaceflight.
Russia halted orbital space tourism in 2010 due to the increase in the International Space Station crew size, using the seats for expedition crews that would previously have been sold to paying spaceflight participants. Orbital tourist flights were set to resume in 2015 but the planned flight was postponed indefinitely. Russian orbital tourism eventually resumed with the launch of Soyuz MS-20 in 2021.
On June 7, 2019, NASA announced that starting in 2020, the organization aims to start allowing private astronauts to go on the International Space Station, with the use of the SpaceX Crew Dragon spacecraft and the Boeing Starliner spacecraft for public astronauts, which is planned to be priced at 35,000 USD per day for one astronaut, and an estimated 50 million USD for the ride there and back.
Work also continues towards developing suborbital space tourism vehicles. This is being done by aerospace companies like Blue Origin and Virgin Galactic. SpaceX announced in 2018 that they are planning on sending space tourists, including Yusaku Maezawa, on a free-return trajectory around the Moon on the Starship.
Precursors:
See also: Space Race
The Soviet space program was successful in broadening the pool of cosmonauts. The Soviet Intercosmos program included cosmonauts selected from Warsaw Pact member countries (Czechoslovakia, Poland, East Germany, Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania) and later from allies of the USSR (Cuba, Mongolia, Vietnam) and non-aligned countries (India, Syria, Afghanistan).
Most of these cosmonauts received full training for their missions and were treated as equals, but were generally given shorter flights than Soviet cosmonauts. The European Space Agency (ESA) also took advantage of the program.
The US Space Shuttle program included payload specialist positions which were usually filled by representatives of companies or institutions managing a specific payload on that mission. These payload specialists did not receive the same training as professional NASA astronauts and were not employed by NASA.
In 1983, Ulf Merbold from the ESA and Byron Lichtenberg from MIT (engineer and Air Force fighter pilot) were the first payload specialists to fly on the Space Shuttle, on mission STS-9.
In 1984, Charles D. Walker became the first non-government astronaut to fly, with his employer McDonnell Douglas paying US$40,000 (equivalent to $112,671 in 2022) for his flight.
During the 1970s, Shuttle prime contractor Rockwell International studied a $200–300 million removable cabin that could fit into the Shuttle's cargo bay. The cabin could carry up to 74 passengers into orbit for up to three days.
Space Habitation Design Associates proposed, in 1983, a cabin for 72 passengers in the bay. Passengers were located in six sections, each with windows and its own loading ramp, and with seats in different configurations for launch and landing. Another proposal was based on the Spacelab habitation modules, which provided 32 seats in the payload bay in addition to those in the cockpit area.
A 1985 presentation to the National Space Society stated that, although flying tourists in the cabin would cost $1 million to $1.5 million per passenger without government subsidy, within 15 years, 30,000 people a year would pay US$25,000 (equivalent to $68,023 in 2022) each to fly in space on new spacecraft. The presentation also forecast flights to lunar orbit within 30 years and visits to the lunar surface within 50 years.
As the shuttle program expanded in the early 1980s, NASA began a Space Flight Participant program to allow citizens without scientific or governmental roles to fly. Christa McAuliffe was chosen as the first Teacher in Space in July 1985 from 11,400 applicants.
1,700 applied for the Journalist in Space program. An Artist in Space program was considered, and NASA expected that after McAuliffe's flight two to three civilians a year would fly on the shuttle. After McAuliffe was killed in the Challenger disaster in January 1986, the programs were canceled.
McAuliffe's backup, Barbara Morgan, eventually got hired in 1998 as a professional astronaut and flew on STS-118 as a mission specialist. A second journalist-in-space program, in which NASA green-lighted Miles O'Brien to fly on the Space Shuttle, was scheduled to be announced in 2003.
That program was canceled in the wake of the Columbia disaster on STS-107 and subsequent emphasis on finishing the International Space Station before retiring the Space Shuttle.
Initially, senior figures at NASA strongly opposed space tourism on principle; from the beginning of the ISS expeditions, NASA stated it was not interested in accommodating paying guests.
The Subcommittee on Space and Aeronautics Committee on Science of the House of Representatives held in June 2001 revealed the shifting attitude of NASA towards paying space tourists wanting to travel to the ISS in its statement on the hearing's purpose:
"Review the issues and opportunities for flying nonprofessional astronauts in space, the appropriate government role for supporting the nascent space tourism industry, use of the Shuttle and Space Station for Tourism, safety and training criteria for space tourists, and the potential commercial market for space tourism."
The subcommittee report was interested in evaluating Dennis Tito's extensive training and his experience in space as a nonprofessional astronaut.
With the realities of the post-Perestroika economy in Russia, its space industry was especially starved for cash. The Tokyo Broadcasting System (TBS) offered to pay for one of its reporters to fly on a mission. Toyohiro Akiyama was flown in 1990 to Mir with the eighth crew and returned a week later with the seventh crew. Cost estimates vary from $10 million up to $37 million. Akiyama gave a daily TV broadcast from orbit and also performed scientific experiments for Russian and Japanese companies.
In 1991, British chemist Helen Sharman was selected from a pool of 13,000 applicants to be the first Briton in space. The program was known as Project Juno and was a cooperative arrangement between the Soviet Union and a group of British companies. The Project Juno consortium failed to raise the funds required, and the program was almost canceled.
Reportedly Mikhail Gorbachev ordered it to proceed under Soviet expense in the interests of international relations, but in the absence of Western underwriting, less expensive experiments were substituted for those in the original plans.
Sharman flew aboard Soyuz TM-12 to Mir and returned aboard Soyuz TM-11.
In April 1999, the Russian space agency announced that 51-year-old British billionaire Peter Llewellyn would be sent to the aging Mir space station in return for a payment of $100 million by Llewellyn. Llewellyn, however, denied agreeing to pay that sum, his refusal to pay which prompted his flight's cancellation a month later.
Sub-orbital space tourism:
See also: Sub-orbital spaceflight
Successful projects:
Scaled Composites won the $10 million X Prize in October 2004 with SpaceShipOne, as the first private company to reach and surpass an altitude of 100 km (62 mi) twice within two weeks. The altitude is beyond the Kármán Line, the arbitrarily-defined boundary of space.
The first flight was flown by Michael Melvill in June 2004, to a height of 100 km (62 mi), making him the first commercial astronaut. The prize-winning flight was flown by Brian Binnie, which reached a height of 112.0 km (69.6 mi), breaking the X-15 record. There were no space tourists on the flights even though the vehicle has seats for three passengers. Instead there was additional weight to make up for the weight of passengers.
In 2005, Virgin Galactic was founded as a joint venture between Scaled Composites and Richard Branson's Virgin Group. Eventually Virgin Group owned the entire project. Virgin Galactic began building SpaceShipTwo-class spaceplanes. The first of these spaceplanes, VSS Enterprise, was intended to commence its first commercial flights in 2015, and tickets were on sale at a price of $200,000 (later raised to $250,000).
However, the company suffered a considerable setback when the Enterprise broke up over the Mojave Desert during a test flight in October 2014. Over 700 tickets had been sold prior to the accident.
A second spaceplane, VSS Unity, completed a successful test flight with four passengers on July 11, 2021 to an altitude of nearly 90 km (56 mi). Galactic 01 became the company's first commercial spaceflight on June 29, 2023.
Blue Origin developed the New Shepard reusable suborbital launch system specifically to enable short-duration space tourism. Blue Origin plans to ferry a maximum of six persons on a brief journey to space on board the New Shepard. The capsule is attached to the top portion of an 18-meter (59-foot) rocket.
The rocket successfully launched with four passengers on July 20, 2021, and reached an altitude of 107 km (66 mi).
Canceled projects:
Armadillo Aerospace was developing a two-seat vertical takeoff and landing (VTOL) rocket called Hyperion, which will be marketed by Space Adventures. Hyperion uses a capsule similar in shape to the Gemini capsule.
The vehicle will use a parachute for descent but will probably use retrorockets for final touchdown, according to remarks made by Armadillo Aerospace at the Next Generation Suborbital Researchers Conference in February 2012. The assets of Armadillo Aerospace were sold to Exos Aerospace and while SARGE is continuing to be developed, it is unclear whether Hyperion is still being developed.
COR Aerospace was developing a suborbital vehicle called Lynx until development was halted in May 2016. The Lynx would take off from a runway under rocket power. Unlike SpaceShipOne and SpaceShipTwo, Lynx would not require a mothership. Lynx was designed for rapid turnaround, which would enable it to fly up to four times per day.
Because of this rapid flight rate, Lynx had fewer seats than SpaceShipTwo, carrying only one pilot and one spaceflight participant on each flight. XCOR expected to roll out the first Lynx prototype and begin flight tests in 2015, but as of late 2017, XCOR was unable to complete their prototype development and filed for bankruptcy.
Citizens in Space, formerly the Teacher in Space Project, is a project of the United States Rocket Academy. Citizens in Space combines citizen science with citizen space exploration.
The goal is to fly citizen-science experiments and citizen explorers (who travel free) who will act as payload operators on suborbital space missions. By 2012, Citizens in Space had acquired a contract for 10 suborbital flights with XCOR Aerospace and expected to acquire additional flights from XCOR and other suborbital spaceflight providers in the future.
In 2012, Citizens in Space reported they had begun training three citizen astronaut candidates and would select seven additional candidates over the next 12 to 14 months.
Space Expedition Corporation was preparing to use the Lynx for "Space Expedition Curaçao", a commercial flight from Hato Airport on Curaçao, and planned to start commercial flights in 2014. The costs were $95,000 each.
Axe Apollo Space Academy promotion by Unilever which planned to provide 23 people suborbital spaceflights on board the Lynx.
EADS Astrium, a subsidiary of European aerospace giant EADS, announced its space tourism project in June 2007.
Orbital space tourism:
See also: Orbital spaceflight
As of 2021, Space Adventures and SpaceX are the only companies to have coordinated tourism flights to Earth's orbit.
Virginia-based Space Adventures has worked with Russia to use its Soyuz spacecraft to fly ultra-wealthy individuals to the International Space Station. The tourists included entrepreneur and space investor Anousheh Ansari and Cirque du Soleil co-founder Guy Laliberté. Those missions were priced at around $20 million each. The space industry could soon be headed for a tourism revolution if SpaceX and Boeing make good on their plans to take tourists to orbit.
Successful projects:
At the end of the 1990s, MirCorp, a private venture that was by then in charge of the space station, began seeking potential space tourists to visit Mir in order to offset some of its maintenance costs. Dennis Tito, an American businessman and former JPL scientist, became their first candidate.
When the decision was made to de-orbit Mir, Tito managed to switch his trip to the International Space Station (ISS) aboard a Russian Soyuz spacecraft through a deal between MirCorp and US-based Space Adventures, Ltd. Dennis Tito visited the ISS for seven days in April–May 2001, becoming the world's first "fee-paying" space tourist. Tito paid a reported $20 million for his trip.
Tito was followed in April 2002 by South African Mark Shuttleworth (Soyuz TM-34). The third was Gregory Olsen in October 2005 (Soyuz TMA-7). In February 2003, the Space Shuttle Columbia disintegrated on re-entry into the Earth's atmosphere, killing all seven astronauts aboard. After this disaster, space tourism on the Russian Soyuz program was temporarily put on hold, because Soyuz vehicles became the only available transport to the ISS.
After the Shuttle's return to service in July 2005, space tourism was resumed. In September 2006, an Iranian American businesswoman named Anousheh Ansari became the fourth space tourist (Soyuz TMA-9)
In April 2007, Charles Simonyi, an American businessman of Hungarian descent, joined their ranks (Soyuz TMA-10). Simonyi became the first repeat space tourist, paying again to fly on Soyuz TMA-14 in March 2009.
British-American Richard Garriott became the next space tourist in October 2008 aboard Soyuz TMA-13.
Canadian Guy Laliberté visited the ISS in September 2009 aboard Soyuz TMA-16, becoming the last visiting tourist until Japanese nationals Yusaku Maezawa and Yozo Hirano aboard Soyuz MS-20 in December 2021.
Originally the third member aboard Soyuz TMA-18M would have been the British singer Sarah Brightman as a space tourist, but on May 13, 2015, she announced she had withdrawn from training.
Since the Space Shuttle was retired in 2011, Soyuz once again became the only means of accessing the ISS, and so tourism was once again put on hold. On June 7, 2019, NASA announced a plan to open the ISS to space tourism again.
On September 16, 2021, the Inspiration4 mission launched from the Kennedy Space Center on a SpaceX Falcon 9 and spent almost three days in orbit aboard the Crew Dragon Resilience, becoming the first all-civilian crew to fly an orbital space mission.
On April 8, 2022, SpaceX launched Axiom Mission 1 (Ax-1) for Axiom Space, sending three space tourists and retired NASA astronaut Michael López-Alegría to the International Space Station on a Crew Dragon spacecraft. Ax-1 was the first mission to send multiple space tourists to the ISS.
The mission also marked the first of NASA's officially-sanctioned Private Astronaut Missions (PAMs) to the ISS. Axiom launched one additional space tourist, John Shoffner, alongside retired NASA astronaut Peggy Whitson and two Saudi astronauts, aboard another Crew Dragon for Axiom Mission 2, on May 21, 2023.
Through these missions, NASA hopes to create a non-NASA market for human spaceflight to enable cost-sharing on future commercial space stations.
Ongoing projects:
The Boeing Starliner capsule is being developed as part of the NASA's Commercial Crew Program. Part of the agreement with NASA allows Boeing to sell seats for space tourists.
Boeing proposed including one seat per flight for a spaceflight participant at a price that would be competitive with what Roscosmos charges tourists.
Two Axiom Space missions have been contracted with SpaceX following the second Axiom mission Ax-2 in May 2023.
The Polaris Program: The commander and financier of the Inspiration4 mission, Jared Isaacman, announced plans for a three-mission program called Polaris in February 2022.
The first mission, Polaris Dawn, will launch four private astronauts in a Crew Dragon spacecraft to earth orbit.
Polaris Dawn will be a free-flyer mission in which the spacecraft will not perform any rendezvous maneuvers, instead aiming to surpass the all-time earth orbit altitude record of 1,373 kilometres set by Gemini XI. Polaris Dawn also seeks to include the first private Extravehicular activity (EVA). The last Polaris program mission is planned to be the first crewed flight of the in-development Starship launch system.
Canceled projects:
In 2004, Bigelow Aerospace established a competition called America's Space Prize, which offered a $50 million prize to the first US company to create a reusable spacecraft capable of carrying passengers to a Nautilus space station. The prize expired in January 2010 without anyone making a serious effort to win it.
The Space Island Group proposed having 20,000 people on their "space island" by 2020.
A United States startup firm, Orion Span announced during the early part of 2018 that it planned to launch and position a luxury space hotel in orbit within several years.
Aurora Space Station, the name of the hotel, would have offered guests (at most six individuals) 12 days of staying in a pill-shaped space hotel for $9.5 million. The hotel's cabins would have measured approximately 12.9 metres (43 feet) by 4.8 metres (14 feet) in width.
Space Adventures Crew Dragon mission: Space Adventures and SpaceX planned to send up to four tourists to low Earth orbit for a few days in late 2021 or early 2022. In October 2021, Space Adventures stated that the mission contract had expired, though the possibility of a future partnership with SpaceX was left open.
Tourism beyond Earth orbit:
Further information: Tourism on the Moon
Ongoing projects:
In February 2017, Elon Musk announced that substantial deposits from two individuals had been received by SpaceX for a Moon loop flight using a free return trajectory and that this could happen as soon as late 2018. Musk said that the cost of the mission would be "comparable" to that of sending an astronaut to the International Space Station, about US$70 million in 2017.
In February 2018, Musk announced that the Falcon Heavy rocket would not be used for crewed missions. The proposal changed in 2018 to use the Starship launch system instead.
In September 2018, Musk revealed the passenger for the trip, Yusaku Maezawa during a livestream. Yusaku Maezawa described the plan for his trip in further detail, dubbed the #dearMoon project, intending to take 6–8 artists with him on the journey to inspire the artists to create new art.
A second mission with a similar flight profile is planned to follow, with Dennis Tito and his wife Akiko Tito as two of the passengers.
Space Adventures Ltd. have announced that they are working on DSE-Alpha, a circumlunar mission to the Moon, with the price per passenger being $100 million.
Cancelled projects:
Excalibur Almaz proposed to take three tourists in a flyby around the Moon, using modified Almaz space station modules, in a low-energy trajectory flyby around the Moon.The trip would last around 6 months. However, their equipment was never launched and is to be converted into an educational exhibit.
The Golden Spike Company was an American space transport startup active from 2010 to 2013. The company held the objective to offer private commercial space transportation services to the surface of the Moon. The company's website was quietly taken offline in September 2015.
The Inspiration Mars Foundation is an American nonprofit organization founded by Dennis Tito that proposed to launch a crewed mission to flyby Mars in January 2018, or 2021 if they missed the first deadline. Their website became defunct by late 2015 but it is archived by the Internet Archive. The Foundation's future plans are unclear.
Bigelow Aerospace planned to extend their successes with the Genesis modules by launching the B330, an expandable habitation module with 330 cubic meters of internal space, aboard a Vulcan rocket. The Vulcan was contracted to boost BA 330 to low lunar orbit by the end of 2022.
Legality:
Under the Outer Space Treaty signed in 1967, the launch operator's nationality and the launch site's location determine which country is responsible for any damages occurred from a launch.
After valuable resources were detected on the Moon, private companies began to formulate methods to extract the resources. Article II of the Outer Space Treaty dictates that "outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, is not subject to national appropriation by claim of sovereignty, by means of use or occupation, or by any other means".
However, countries have the right to freely explore the Moon and any resources collected are property of that country when they return.
United States:
In December 2005, the US government released a set of proposed rules for space tourism. These included screening procedures and training for emergency situations, but not health requirements.
In 1984, the U.S. Congress passed the Commercial Space Launch Act, which, among other things, encourages space commercialization (51 U.S.C. § 20102(c)).
Under current US law, any company proposing to launch paying passengers from American soil on a suborbital rocket must receive a license from the Federal Aviation Administration's Office of Commercial Space Transportation (FAA/AST).
The licensing process focuses on public safety and safety of property, and the details can be found in the Code of Federal Regulations, Title 14, Chapter III. This is in accordance with the Commercial Space Launch Amendments Act passed by Congress in 2004, which required that NASA and the Federal Aviation Administration to allow paying passengers fly on suborbital launch vehicles at their own risk.
In March 2010, the New Mexico legislature passed the Spaceflight Informed Consent Act. The SICA gives legal protection to companies who provide private space flights in the case of accidental harm or death to individuals. Participants sign an Informed Consent waiver, dictating that spaceflight operators cannot be held liable in the "death of a participant resulting from the inherent risks of space flight activities". Operators are however not covered in the case of gross negligence or willful misconduct.
In December 2021, the FAA announced that starting in 2022, it would recognize on its official website those who travel to space. “Any individual who is on an FAA-licensed or permitted launch and reaches 50 statute miles above the surface of the Earth will be listed on the site.”
The announcement ended the Commercial Space Astronaut Wings program, under which the FAA had offered commercial astronaut wings to individuals on private spacecraft who made it above 50 miles (80 kilometers) in altitude above Earth since 2004.
Legal issues and challenges:
With the increasing advent of sub-orbital flights, there are growing concerns that the present international framework is insufficient to address the significant issues raised by space tourism.
The concerns relate to commercial Liability, insurance, consumer protection, passenger safety, environmental impact, and emergency response.
The followin list notes each trip taken by an individual for whom a fee was paid (by themselves or another party) to go above the Kármán Line, the internationally recognized boundary of space. It also includes future trips which are paid for and scheduled.
Click here for a List of space tourism trips.
___________________________________________________________________________
* -- Inside SpaceX Starship SN15: Below is a Diagram of Starship's internal structure. Not shown in this diagram are the flaps: the aft flaps are placed at the bottom (or left in this orientation), and the forward flaps are placed at the top (here, right) portion of the spaceship. From the FAA environmental reassessment.
During the period from 2001 to 2009, seven space tourists made eight space flights aboard a Russian Soyuz spacecraft to the International Space Station, brokered by Space Adventures in conjunction with Roscosmos and RSC Energia.
The publicized price was in the range of US$20–25 million per trip. Some space tourists have signed contracts with third parties to conduct certain research activities while in orbit. By 2007, space tourism was thought to be one of the earliest markets that would emerge for commercial spaceflight.
Russia halted orbital space tourism in 2010 due to the increase in the International Space Station crew size, using the seats for expedition crews that would previously have been sold to paying spaceflight participants. Orbital tourist flights were set to resume in 2015 but the planned flight was postponed indefinitely. Russian orbital tourism eventually resumed with the launch of Soyuz MS-20 in 2021.
On June 7, 2019, NASA announced that starting in 2020, the organization aims to start allowing private astronauts to go on the International Space Station, with the use of the SpaceX Crew Dragon spacecraft and the Boeing Starliner spacecraft for public astronauts, which is planned to be priced at 35,000 USD per day for one astronaut, and an estimated 50 million USD for the ride there and back.
Work also continues towards developing suborbital space tourism vehicles. This is being done by aerospace companies like Blue Origin and Virgin Galactic. SpaceX announced in 2018 that they are planning on sending space tourists, including Yusaku Maezawa, on a free-return trajectory around the Moon on the Starship.
Precursors:
See also: Space Race
The Soviet space program was successful in broadening the pool of cosmonauts. The Soviet Intercosmos program included cosmonauts selected from Warsaw Pact member countries (Czechoslovakia, Poland, East Germany, Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania) and later from allies of the USSR (Cuba, Mongolia, Vietnam) and non-aligned countries (India, Syria, Afghanistan).
Most of these cosmonauts received full training for their missions and were treated as equals, but were generally given shorter flights than Soviet cosmonauts. The European Space Agency (ESA) also took advantage of the program.
The US Space Shuttle program included payload specialist positions which were usually filled by representatives of companies or institutions managing a specific payload on that mission. These payload specialists did not receive the same training as professional NASA astronauts and were not employed by NASA.
In 1983, Ulf Merbold from the ESA and Byron Lichtenberg from MIT (engineer and Air Force fighter pilot) were the first payload specialists to fly on the Space Shuttle, on mission STS-9.
In 1984, Charles D. Walker became the first non-government astronaut to fly, with his employer McDonnell Douglas paying US$40,000 (equivalent to $112,671 in 2022) for his flight.
During the 1970s, Shuttle prime contractor Rockwell International studied a $200–300 million removable cabin that could fit into the Shuttle's cargo bay. The cabin could carry up to 74 passengers into orbit for up to three days.
Space Habitation Design Associates proposed, in 1983, a cabin for 72 passengers in the bay. Passengers were located in six sections, each with windows and its own loading ramp, and with seats in different configurations for launch and landing. Another proposal was based on the Spacelab habitation modules, which provided 32 seats in the payload bay in addition to those in the cockpit area.
A 1985 presentation to the National Space Society stated that, although flying tourists in the cabin would cost $1 million to $1.5 million per passenger without government subsidy, within 15 years, 30,000 people a year would pay US$25,000 (equivalent to $68,023 in 2022) each to fly in space on new spacecraft. The presentation also forecast flights to lunar orbit within 30 years and visits to the lunar surface within 50 years.
As the shuttle program expanded in the early 1980s, NASA began a Space Flight Participant program to allow citizens without scientific or governmental roles to fly. Christa McAuliffe was chosen as the first Teacher in Space in July 1985 from 11,400 applicants.
1,700 applied for the Journalist in Space program. An Artist in Space program was considered, and NASA expected that after McAuliffe's flight two to three civilians a year would fly on the shuttle. After McAuliffe was killed in the Challenger disaster in January 1986, the programs were canceled.
McAuliffe's backup, Barbara Morgan, eventually got hired in 1998 as a professional astronaut and flew on STS-118 as a mission specialist. A second journalist-in-space program, in which NASA green-lighted Miles O'Brien to fly on the Space Shuttle, was scheduled to be announced in 2003.
That program was canceled in the wake of the Columbia disaster on STS-107 and subsequent emphasis on finishing the International Space Station before retiring the Space Shuttle.
Initially, senior figures at NASA strongly opposed space tourism on principle; from the beginning of the ISS expeditions, NASA stated it was not interested in accommodating paying guests.
The Subcommittee on Space and Aeronautics Committee on Science of the House of Representatives held in June 2001 revealed the shifting attitude of NASA towards paying space tourists wanting to travel to the ISS in its statement on the hearing's purpose:
"Review the issues and opportunities for flying nonprofessional astronauts in space, the appropriate government role for supporting the nascent space tourism industry, use of the Shuttle and Space Station for Tourism, safety and training criteria for space tourists, and the potential commercial market for space tourism."
The subcommittee report was interested in evaluating Dennis Tito's extensive training and his experience in space as a nonprofessional astronaut.
With the realities of the post-Perestroika economy in Russia, its space industry was especially starved for cash. The Tokyo Broadcasting System (TBS) offered to pay for one of its reporters to fly on a mission. Toyohiro Akiyama was flown in 1990 to Mir with the eighth crew and returned a week later with the seventh crew. Cost estimates vary from $10 million up to $37 million. Akiyama gave a daily TV broadcast from orbit and also performed scientific experiments for Russian and Japanese companies.
In 1991, British chemist Helen Sharman was selected from a pool of 13,000 applicants to be the first Briton in space. The program was known as Project Juno and was a cooperative arrangement between the Soviet Union and a group of British companies. The Project Juno consortium failed to raise the funds required, and the program was almost canceled.
Reportedly Mikhail Gorbachev ordered it to proceed under Soviet expense in the interests of international relations, but in the absence of Western underwriting, less expensive experiments were substituted for those in the original plans.
Sharman flew aboard Soyuz TM-12 to Mir and returned aboard Soyuz TM-11.
In April 1999, the Russian space agency announced that 51-year-old British billionaire Peter Llewellyn would be sent to the aging Mir space station in return for a payment of $100 million by Llewellyn. Llewellyn, however, denied agreeing to pay that sum, his refusal to pay which prompted his flight's cancellation a month later.
Sub-orbital space tourism:
See also: Sub-orbital spaceflight
Successful projects:
Scaled Composites won the $10 million X Prize in October 2004 with SpaceShipOne, as the first private company to reach and surpass an altitude of 100 km (62 mi) twice within two weeks. The altitude is beyond the Kármán Line, the arbitrarily-defined boundary of space.
The first flight was flown by Michael Melvill in June 2004, to a height of 100 km (62 mi), making him the first commercial astronaut. The prize-winning flight was flown by Brian Binnie, which reached a height of 112.0 km (69.6 mi), breaking the X-15 record. There were no space tourists on the flights even though the vehicle has seats for three passengers. Instead there was additional weight to make up for the weight of passengers.
In 2005, Virgin Galactic was founded as a joint venture between Scaled Composites and Richard Branson's Virgin Group. Eventually Virgin Group owned the entire project. Virgin Galactic began building SpaceShipTwo-class spaceplanes. The first of these spaceplanes, VSS Enterprise, was intended to commence its first commercial flights in 2015, and tickets were on sale at a price of $200,000 (later raised to $250,000).
However, the company suffered a considerable setback when the Enterprise broke up over the Mojave Desert during a test flight in October 2014. Over 700 tickets had been sold prior to the accident.
A second spaceplane, VSS Unity, completed a successful test flight with four passengers on July 11, 2021 to an altitude of nearly 90 km (56 mi). Galactic 01 became the company's first commercial spaceflight on June 29, 2023.
Blue Origin developed the New Shepard reusable suborbital launch system specifically to enable short-duration space tourism. Blue Origin plans to ferry a maximum of six persons on a brief journey to space on board the New Shepard. The capsule is attached to the top portion of an 18-meter (59-foot) rocket.
The rocket successfully launched with four passengers on July 20, 2021, and reached an altitude of 107 km (66 mi).
Canceled projects:
Armadillo Aerospace was developing a two-seat vertical takeoff and landing (VTOL) rocket called Hyperion, which will be marketed by Space Adventures. Hyperion uses a capsule similar in shape to the Gemini capsule.
The vehicle will use a parachute for descent but will probably use retrorockets for final touchdown, according to remarks made by Armadillo Aerospace at the Next Generation Suborbital Researchers Conference in February 2012. The assets of Armadillo Aerospace were sold to Exos Aerospace and while SARGE is continuing to be developed, it is unclear whether Hyperion is still being developed.
COR Aerospace was developing a suborbital vehicle called Lynx until development was halted in May 2016. The Lynx would take off from a runway under rocket power. Unlike SpaceShipOne and SpaceShipTwo, Lynx would not require a mothership. Lynx was designed for rapid turnaround, which would enable it to fly up to four times per day.
Because of this rapid flight rate, Lynx had fewer seats than SpaceShipTwo, carrying only one pilot and one spaceflight participant on each flight. XCOR expected to roll out the first Lynx prototype and begin flight tests in 2015, but as of late 2017, XCOR was unable to complete their prototype development and filed for bankruptcy.
Citizens in Space, formerly the Teacher in Space Project, is a project of the United States Rocket Academy. Citizens in Space combines citizen science with citizen space exploration.
The goal is to fly citizen-science experiments and citizen explorers (who travel free) who will act as payload operators on suborbital space missions. By 2012, Citizens in Space had acquired a contract for 10 suborbital flights with XCOR Aerospace and expected to acquire additional flights from XCOR and other suborbital spaceflight providers in the future.
In 2012, Citizens in Space reported they had begun training three citizen astronaut candidates and would select seven additional candidates over the next 12 to 14 months.
Space Expedition Corporation was preparing to use the Lynx for "Space Expedition Curaçao", a commercial flight from Hato Airport on Curaçao, and planned to start commercial flights in 2014. The costs were $95,000 each.
Axe Apollo Space Academy promotion by Unilever which planned to provide 23 people suborbital spaceflights on board the Lynx.
EADS Astrium, a subsidiary of European aerospace giant EADS, announced its space tourism project in June 2007.
Orbital space tourism:
See also: Orbital spaceflight
As of 2021, Space Adventures and SpaceX are the only companies to have coordinated tourism flights to Earth's orbit.
Virginia-based Space Adventures has worked with Russia to use its Soyuz spacecraft to fly ultra-wealthy individuals to the International Space Station. The tourists included entrepreneur and space investor Anousheh Ansari and Cirque du Soleil co-founder Guy Laliberté. Those missions were priced at around $20 million each. The space industry could soon be headed for a tourism revolution if SpaceX and Boeing make good on their plans to take tourists to orbit.
Successful projects:
At the end of the 1990s, MirCorp, a private venture that was by then in charge of the space station, began seeking potential space tourists to visit Mir in order to offset some of its maintenance costs. Dennis Tito, an American businessman and former JPL scientist, became their first candidate.
When the decision was made to de-orbit Mir, Tito managed to switch his trip to the International Space Station (ISS) aboard a Russian Soyuz spacecraft through a deal between MirCorp and US-based Space Adventures, Ltd. Dennis Tito visited the ISS for seven days in April–May 2001, becoming the world's first "fee-paying" space tourist. Tito paid a reported $20 million for his trip.
Tito was followed in April 2002 by South African Mark Shuttleworth (Soyuz TM-34). The third was Gregory Olsen in October 2005 (Soyuz TMA-7). In February 2003, the Space Shuttle Columbia disintegrated on re-entry into the Earth's atmosphere, killing all seven astronauts aboard. After this disaster, space tourism on the Russian Soyuz program was temporarily put on hold, because Soyuz vehicles became the only available transport to the ISS.
After the Shuttle's return to service in July 2005, space tourism was resumed. In September 2006, an Iranian American businesswoman named Anousheh Ansari became the fourth space tourist (Soyuz TMA-9)
In April 2007, Charles Simonyi, an American businessman of Hungarian descent, joined their ranks (Soyuz TMA-10). Simonyi became the first repeat space tourist, paying again to fly on Soyuz TMA-14 in March 2009.
British-American Richard Garriott became the next space tourist in October 2008 aboard Soyuz TMA-13.
Canadian Guy Laliberté visited the ISS in September 2009 aboard Soyuz TMA-16, becoming the last visiting tourist until Japanese nationals Yusaku Maezawa and Yozo Hirano aboard Soyuz MS-20 in December 2021.
Originally the third member aboard Soyuz TMA-18M would have been the British singer Sarah Brightman as a space tourist, but on May 13, 2015, she announced she had withdrawn from training.
Since the Space Shuttle was retired in 2011, Soyuz once again became the only means of accessing the ISS, and so tourism was once again put on hold. On June 7, 2019, NASA announced a plan to open the ISS to space tourism again.
On September 16, 2021, the Inspiration4 mission launched from the Kennedy Space Center on a SpaceX Falcon 9 and spent almost three days in orbit aboard the Crew Dragon Resilience, becoming the first all-civilian crew to fly an orbital space mission.
On April 8, 2022, SpaceX launched Axiom Mission 1 (Ax-1) for Axiom Space, sending three space tourists and retired NASA astronaut Michael López-Alegría to the International Space Station on a Crew Dragon spacecraft. Ax-1 was the first mission to send multiple space tourists to the ISS.
The mission also marked the first of NASA's officially-sanctioned Private Astronaut Missions (PAMs) to the ISS. Axiom launched one additional space tourist, John Shoffner, alongside retired NASA astronaut Peggy Whitson and two Saudi astronauts, aboard another Crew Dragon for Axiom Mission 2, on May 21, 2023.
Through these missions, NASA hopes to create a non-NASA market for human spaceflight to enable cost-sharing on future commercial space stations.
Ongoing projects:
The Boeing Starliner capsule is being developed as part of the NASA's Commercial Crew Program. Part of the agreement with NASA allows Boeing to sell seats for space tourists.
Boeing proposed including one seat per flight for a spaceflight participant at a price that would be competitive with what Roscosmos charges tourists.
Two Axiom Space missions have been contracted with SpaceX following the second Axiom mission Ax-2 in May 2023.
The Polaris Program: The commander and financier of the Inspiration4 mission, Jared Isaacman, announced plans for a three-mission program called Polaris in February 2022.
The first mission, Polaris Dawn, will launch four private astronauts in a Crew Dragon spacecraft to earth orbit.
Polaris Dawn will be a free-flyer mission in which the spacecraft will not perform any rendezvous maneuvers, instead aiming to surpass the all-time earth orbit altitude record of 1,373 kilometres set by Gemini XI. Polaris Dawn also seeks to include the first private Extravehicular activity (EVA). The last Polaris program mission is planned to be the first crewed flight of the in-development Starship launch system.
Canceled projects:
In 2004, Bigelow Aerospace established a competition called America's Space Prize, which offered a $50 million prize to the first US company to create a reusable spacecraft capable of carrying passengers to a Nautilus space station. The prize expired in January 2010 without anyone making a serious effort to win it.
The Space Island Group proposed having 20,000 people on their "space island" by 2020.
A United States startup firm, Orion Span announced during the early part of 2018 that it planned to launch and position a luxury space hotel in orbit within several years.
Aurora Space Station, the name of the hotel, would have offered guests (at most six individuals) 12 days of staying in a pill-shaped space hotel for $9.5 million. The hotel's cabins would have measured approximately 12.9 metres (43 feet) by 4.8 metres (14 feet) in width.
Space Adventures Crew Dragon mission: Space Adventures and SpaceX planned to send up to four tourists to low Earth orbit for a few days in late 2021 or early 2022. In October 2021, Space Adventures stated that the mission contract had expired, though the possibility of a future partnership with SpaceX was left open.
- Galactic Suite Design
- Orbital Technologies Commercial Space Station
- Space Industries Incorporated
- Space Islands
Tourism beyond Earth orbit:
Further information: Tourism on the Moon
Ongoing projects:
In February 2017, Elon Musk announced that substantial deposits from two individuals had been received by SpaceX for a Moon loop flight using a free return trajectory and that this could happen as soon as late 2018. Musk said that the cost of the mission would be "comparable" to that of sending an astronaut to the International Space Station, about US$70 million in 2017.
In February 2018, Musk announced that the Falcon Heavy rocket would not be used for crewed missions. The proposal changed in 2018 to use the Starship launch system instead.
In September 2018, Musk revealed the passenger for the trip, Yusaku Maezawa during a livestream. Yusaku Maezawa described the plan for his trip in further detail, dubbed the #dearMoon project, intending to take 6–8 artists with him on the journey to inspire the artists to create new art.
A second mission with a similar flight profile is planned to follow, with Dennis Tito and his wife Akiko Tito as two of the passengers.
Space Adventures Ltd. have announced that they are working on DSE-Alpha, a circumlunar mission to the Moon, with the price per passenger being $100 million.
Cancelled projects:
Excalibur Almaz proposed to take three tourists in a flyby around the Moon, using modified Almaz space station modules, in a low-energy trajectory flyby around the Moon.The trip would last around 6 months. However, their equipment was never launched and is to be converted into an educational exhibit.
The Golden Spike Company was an American space transport startup active from 2010 to 2013. The company held the objective to offer private commercial space transportation services to the surface of the Moon. The company's website was quietly taken offline in September 2015.
The Inspiration Mars Foundation is an American nonprofit organization founded by Dennis Tito that proposed to launch a crewed mission to flyby Mars in January 2018, or 2021 if they missed the first deadline. Their website became defunct by late 2015 but it is archived by the Internet Archive. The Foundation's future plans are unclear.
Bigelow Aerospace planned to extend their successes with the Genesis modules by launching the B330, an expandable habitation module with 330 cubic meters of internal space, aboard a Vulcan rocket. The Vulcan was contracted to boost BA 330 to low lunar orbit by the end of 2022.
Legality:
Under the Outer Space Treaty signed in 1967, the launch operator's nationality and the launch site's location determine which country is responsible for any damages occurred from a launch.
After valuable resources were detected on the Moon, private companies began to formulate methods to extract the resources. Article II of the Outer Space Treaty dictates that "outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, is not subject to national appropriation by claim of sovereignty, by means of use or occupation, or by any other means".
However, countries have the right to freely explore the Moon and any resources collected are property of that country when they return.
United States:
In December 2005, the US government released a set of proposed rules for space tourism. These included screening procedures and training for emergency situations, but not health requirements.
In 1984, the U.S. Congress passed the Commercial Space Launch Act, which, among other things, encourages space commercialization (51 U.S.C. § 20102(c)).
Under current US law, any company proposing to launch paying passengers from American soil on a suborbital rocket must receive a license from the Federal Aviation Administration's Office of Commercial Space Transportation (FAA/AST).
The licensing process focuses on public safety and safety of property, and the details can be found in the Code of Federal Regulations, Title 14, Chapter III. This is in accordance with the Commercial Space Launch Amendments Act passed by Congress in 2004, which required that NASA and the Federal Aviation Administration to allow paying passengers fly on suborbital launch vehicles at their own risk.
In March 2010, the New Mexico legislature passed the Spaceflight Informed Consent Act. The SICA gives legal protection to companies who provide private space flights in the case of accidental harm or death to individuals. Participants sign an Informed Consent waiver, dictating that spaceflight operators cannot be held liable in the "death of a participant resulting from the inherent risks of space flight activities". Operators are however not covered in the case of gross negligence or willful misconduct.
In December 2021, the FAA announced that starting in 2022, it would recognize on its official website those who travel to space. “Any individual who is on an FAA-licensed or permitted launch and reaches 50 statute miles above the surface of the Earth will be listed on the site.”
The announcement ended the Commercial Space Astronaut Wings program, under which the FAA had offered commercial astronaut wings to individuals on private spacecraft who made it above 50 miles (80 kilometers) in altitude above Earth since 2004.
Legal issues and challenges:
With the increasing advent of sub-orbital flights, there are growing concerns that the present international framework is insufficient to address the significant issues raised by space tourism.
The concerns relate to commercial Liability, insurance, consumer protection, passenger safety, environmental impact, and emergency response.
The followin list notes each trip taken by an individual for whom a fee was paid (by themselves or another party) to go above the Kármán Line, the internationally recognized boundary of space. It also includes future trips which are paid for and scheduled.
Click here for a List of space tourism trips.
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* -- Inside SpaceX Starship SN15: Below is a Diagram of Starship's internal structure. Not shown in this diagram are the flaps: the aft flaps are placed at the bottom (or left in this orientation), and the forward flaps are placed at the top (here, right) portion of the spaceship. From the FAA environmental reassessment.
SpaceX Starship SN15 is a spacecraft currently under development by American aerospace company SpaceX. Stacked atop its booster, Super Heavy, it composes the identically named Starship super heavy-lift space vehicle.
The spacecraft is designed to transport both crew and cargo to a variety of destinations, including Earth orbit, the Moon, Mars, and potentially beyond. It is intended to enable long duration interplanetary flights for a crew of up to 100 people. It will also be capable of point-to-point transport on Earth, enabling travel to anywhere in the world in less than an hour.
Furthermore, the spacecraft will be used to refuel other Starship vehicles to allow them to reach higher orbits and other space destinations.
Elon Musk, the CEO of SpaceX, estimated in a tweet that 8 launches would be needed to completely refuel a Starship in Low Earth Orbit, having extrapolated this by using Starship's payload to orbit and combining it with how much fuel a fully fueled Starship contains. To land on bodies without an atmosphere, such as the Moon, Starship will fire its engines and thrusters to slow down.
Development began in 2012, when Elon Musk, CEO of SpaceX, described a plan to build a reusable rocket system with substantially greater capabilities than the Falcon 9 and the planned Falcon Heavy. The rocket evolved through many design and name changes. On July 25, 2019, the Starhopper prototype performed the first successful flight at SpaceX Starbase near Boca Chica, Texas.
The SN15 prototype became the first full-size test spacecraft to take off and land successfully in May 2021. On April 20, 2023, Ship 24 and Booster 7 lifted off the pad, the first time the booster and starship flew together as a fully integrated stack.
History:
Mars Colonial Transporter:
This concept was announced in 2012. It was a launch system that was hoped to be able to send 100 tonnes (220,400 pounds) to Low Earth Orbit. It was referred to internally as the ‘Big Fucking Rocket’, and the second stage spacecraft was known as the ‘Big Fucking Ship’.
Design:
The Starship spacecraft is 50 m (160 ft) tall, 9 m (30 ft) in diameter, and has 6 Raptor engines, 3 of which are optimized for usage in outer space. Future vehicles may have an additional 3 Raptor Vacuum engines for increased payload capacity.
The vehicle's payload bay, measuring 17 m (56 ft) tall by 8 m (26 ft) in diameter, is the largest of any active or planned launch vehicle; its internal volume of 1,000 m3 (35,000 cu ft) is slightly larger than the ISS's pressurized volume. SpaceX will also provide a 22 m (72 ft) tall payload bay configuration for even larger payloads.
Starship has a total propellant capacity of 1,200 t (2,600,000 lb) across its main tanks and header tanks. The header tanks are better insulated due to their position and are reserved for use to flip and land the spacecraft following reentry. A set of reaction control thrusters, which use the pressure in the fuel tank, control attitude while in space.
The spacecraft has four body flaps to control the spacecraft's orientation and help dissipate energy during atmospheric entry, composed of two forward flaps and two aft flaps.
According to SpaceX, the flaps replace the need for wings or tailplane, reduce the fuel needed for landing, and allow landing at destinations in the Solar System where runways don't exist (for example, Mars).
Under the forward flaps, hardpoints are used for lifting and catching the spacecraft via mechanical arms. The flap's hinges are sealed in aero-covers because they would be easily damaged during reentry.
Starship's heat shield, composed of thousands of hexagonal black tiles that can withstand temperatures of 1,400 °C (2,600 °F), is designed to be used many times without maintenance between flights. The tiles are made of silica and are attached with pins rather than glued, with small gaps in between to counteract heat expansion. Their hexagonal shape facilitate mass production and prevent hot plasma from causing severe damage to the vehicle.
Variants:
For satellite launch, Starship will have a large cargo door that will open to release payloads and close upon reentry instead of a more conventional jettisonable nose-cone fairing. Instead of a cleanroom, payloads are integrated directly into Starship's payload bay, which requires purging the payload bay with temperature-controlled ISO class 8 clean air.
To deploy Starlink satellites, the cargo door will be replaced with a slot and dispenser rack, whose mechanism has been compared to a Pez candy dispenser.
Crewed Starship vehicles would replace the cargo bay with a pressurized crew section and have a life support system. For long-duration missions, such as crewed flights to Mars, SpaceX describes the interior as potentially including "private cabins, large communal areas, centralized storage, solar storm shelters, and a viewing gallery." Starship's life support system is expected to recycle resources such as air and water from waste.
Starship Human Landing System (HLS) is a crewed lunar lander variant of the Starship vehicle that is extensively modified for landing, operation, and takeoff from the lunar surface. It features:
Starship HLS will be able to land more than 100 t (220,000 lb) of payload on the Moon per flight.
Starship will be able to be refuelled by docking with separately launched Starship propellant tanker spacecraft in orbit. Doing so would increase the spacecraft's mass capacity and allow it to reach higher-energy targets, such as geosynchronous orbit, the Moon, and Mars.
A Starship propellant depot could cache methane and oxygen on-orbit, and will be used by Starship HLS to replenish its fuel tanks.
Development:
For a list of test flights of the vehicle, see SpaceX Starship flight tests
Starship's development is iterative and incremental, using frequent—and often destructive— tests on a series of rocket prototypes.
SpaceX prototypes are subjected to many tests before they can be launched. Proof pressure tests come first. The tanks are filled with a liquid or gas to test their strength and safety factor.
SpaceX tests some tanks beyond the specified limit, to find the point at which they burst. The engines were tested in later prototypes, while the vehicle remained tethered to the ground (static fire). After passing these tests vehicles launch, either flying within the atmosphere, or reaching orbit.
YouTube Videos of Starship flight tests:
From NASASpaceFlight.com and SpaceX
Click here for a chart covering a List of Starship prototypes
Starhopper
Construction on the initial steel test article--Starship Hopper, Hopper, Hoppy, or Starhopper began at Boca Chica in 2018. Starhopper had a single engine and was test flown to develop landing and low-altitude/low-velocity control algorithms.
Starhopper used LOX and liquid methane fuel.
Testing:
It passed tanking tests, wet dress rehearsals, and pre-burner tests. A storm blew over and damaged Starhopper's nose cone. SpaceX continued testing without one.
It then passed a static fire test, and in a tethered test reached 1 meter altitude. On July 25, a Starhopper test flight reached about 20 m (66 ft) altitude, followed by a August 27 test that rose to 150 m (490 ft) and landed about 100 m (330 ft) from the launchpad, the Raptor's first use in flight.
Mark series (Mk1 – Mk4):
SpaceX began building two high-altitude prototypes simultaneously, Mk1 in Texas and Mk2 in Florida, using competing teams that shared progress, insights, and build techniques.
These vehicles featured three Raptor methalox engines and were meant to reach an altitude 5 km (3.1 mi). An Mk3 prototype began construction in late-2019.
Mk1 was 9 m (30 ft) in diameter and about 50 m (160 ft) tall, with an empty mass of 200 t (440,000 lb). It was intended for testing flight and reentry profiles, in pursuit of a suborbital flight.
When announced, it boasted three sea-level Raptors, two fins each at the front and back, and a nose cone containing cold-gas reaction control thrusters,. all of which were removed thereafter.
Mk4 construction began in Florida in October, but was scrapped after a few weeks.
On November 20, 2019, Mk1 blew apart during a pressure test. Mk2 was never completed.
In December 2019, Musk redesignated Mk3 as Starship SN1 and predicted that minor design improvements would continue through SN20. In January 2020, SpaceX performed pressurization tests in Boca Chica.
One test intentionally destroyed the tank by over-pressurizing it to 7.1 bar (103 psi).
Another tank underwent at least two pressurization tests; the first failed at 7.5 bar (109 psi). After repairs the tank was cryogenic pressure tested (January 29), and ruptured at 8.5 bar (123 psi). The test was considered a success as 8.5 represented a safety factor of 1.4 times the 6 bar (87 psi) operational pressure.
SpaceX began stacking SN1 in February 2020 after successful pressurization tests on propellant tank prototypes. SN1 was destroyed during a cryogenic pressurization test (February 28) due to a design flaw in the lower tank thrust structure.
Hops (SN3 – SN6):
SN3 and SN4:
SN3 was destroyed during testing on April 3, 2020 due to a bad testing configuration.
SN4 passed cryogenic pressure testing (April 26) and two static fires (May 5 and 7): one tested the main tanks, while the other tested the fuel header tank. After uninstalling the engine, a new cryogenic pressure test was conducted (May 19). A leak in the methane fuel piping ignited, causing significant damage to the rocket's base, destroying the control wiring. SN4 was destroyed (May 29), due to a failure with the Ground Support Equipment's quick-disconnect function.
SN5 and SN6:
After a static fire test (July 30), SN5 completed a 150-meter flight (August 4) with engine SN27. SN6 completed a static fire (August 24) and a 150-meter hop test flight with engine SN29 (September 3).
In January 2021, SN6 was scrapped, followed by SN5 in February.
High-altitude test flights (SN8 – SN15):
SN8 and SN9:
SN8 was planned to be built out of 304L stainless steel, although some parts may have used 301 steel. In late October and November, SN8 survived four static fires. During the third test (November 12), debris from the pad caused the vehicle to lose pneumatics.
Launch took place on December 9. The launch, ascent, reorientation, and controlled descent were successful, but low pressure in the methane header tank kept the engines from producing enough thrust for the landing burn, destroying SN8 on impact.
On December 11, the stand beneath SN9 failed, causing the vehicle to tip and contact the walls inside the High Bay. SN9 then required a replacement forward flap. SN9 conducted 6 static fires in January 2021, including three separate static fires.
Engines 44 and 46 had to be replaced. After struggling to gain FAA permission, SN9 conducted a 10 km (6.2 mi) flight test (February 2). Ascent, engine cutoffs, reorientation and controlled descent were stable, but one engine's oxygen pre-burner failed, sending SN9 crashing into the landing pad. The landing pad was then reinforced with an additional layer of concrete.
After the SN9 failure, all three engines were used to perform the belly flop landing sequence. This offered a failsafe should one fail to ignite.
SN10 – SN14:
SN10's first cryogenic proof test succeeded (February 8), followed by a static fire (February 23). After an engine swap came another static fire (February 25).
Two launch attempts were conducted on March 3. The first attempt was automatically aborted after one engine produced too much thrust while throttling up. After a 3-hour delay to increase the tolerance, the second attempt landed without exploding.
The test ended with a hard landing-at 10 m/s-most likely due to partial helium ingestion from the fuel header tank. Three landing legs were not locked in place, producing a slight lean after landing. Although the vehicle initially remained intact, the impact crushed the legs and part of the leg skirt. Eight minutes later the prototype exploded.
SN11 accomplished a cryogenic proof test (March 12) that included a test of the Reaction Control System (RCS), followed by a static fire test (March 15). Immediately after ignition, the test was aborted. Another static fire attempt led to reports that one of the three engines had been removed for repairs. A replacement engine was installed and a third static fire was attempted (March 26).
A 10 km flight test was conducted in heavy fog (March 30). The test included engine cutoffs, flip maneuver, flap control and descent, along with a visible fire on engine 2 during the ascent.
Just after the defective engine was re-ignited for the landing burn, SN11 lost telemetry at T+ 5:49 and disintegrated. SN12 through SN14 never launched.
SN15 – SN19:
SN15 introduced improved avionics software, an updated aft skirt propellant architecture, and a new Raptor design and configuration. A Starlink antenna on the side of the vehicle was another new feature. SN15 underwent an ambient temperature pressure test (April 9)
A cryogenic proof test (April 12), and a header tank cryogenic proof test (April 13). Then a static fire (April 26) and a header tank static fire (April 27) followed. A 10 km (33,000 ft) high-altitude flight test was conducted in overcast weather on May 5, achieving a soft touchdown.
A small fire near the base was controlled shortly after landing. After its engines were removed, it was retired on May 31, the first Starship prototype to fly, land and be recovered. It took its place in the Rocket Garden. SN16 and SN17 were scrapped, and SN18 and SN19 were never completed. On July 26, 2023, SN15 was scrapped.
Orbital launches (SN20/Ship 20 and subsequent):
SN20/Ship 20 – Ship 23:
SN20 (Ship 20) resides in the Rocket Garden, previously planned to be launched atop the Super Heavy booster. SN20's thermal protection system covers much of the vehicle.
SN20 rolled out to the launch mount on August 5, 2021, and was the first to be stacked on a booster. It used Booster 4 for a fit test.
FCC filings in May 2021 by SpaceX stated that the orbital flight would launch from Boca Chica. After separation, Starship would enter orbit and around 90 minutes later attempt a soft ocean landing around 100 km off the coast of Kauai.
Ship 21 was scrapped, Ship 22 moved out to the Rocket Garden in late February 2022. Ship 23 was scrapped and partially recycled in Ship 24 which was targeted for an orbital flight as of September 2022. As of July 31, 2023, Ship 22's forward flaps have been attached to Ship 29's nosecone.
Ship 24:
Further information: SpaceX Starship Integrated Flight Test
As of December 2022, Ship 24 was planned to make an orbital test flight atop Booster 7. It was first spotted in November 2021, and made cryogenic proof tests on 2, 6, and June 7, 2022. Starship 24 then conducted spin prime tests on 18, 20, and July 21, 2022, with an additional one on August 8, 2022.
It was static fired with two engines on August 9, 2022.
On September 8, 2022, Ship 24 underwent a static fire test where all six of its engines; three sea level and three vacuum engines, endured an 8-second test. The test damaged/destroyed around 30 of its 25,000 ceramic tiles.
The ship went through repairs and was subsequently stacked on top of Booster 7 in late October ahead of further testing. As of January 26, 2023, Ship 24 was rolled back to the production site for final TPS work for orbital test flight. On April 20, 2023, it
was intentionally destroyed in flight along with Booster 7 after spinning out of control.
In response to the launch damage caused by the first orbital flight attempt, SpaceX plan to put steel plates cooled by a water-system underneath the launch mount for the next Starship launch. According to Elon Musk, the launch tower has no meaningful damage although it was struck by large chunks of concrete.
Ship 25:
Ship 25 is a Starship prototype very similar to the destroyed Ship 24, currently slated to fly on the second Integrated Flight Test with Booster 9. Like Ship 24, it features a heat shield. A payload bay was also built, but it was sealed permanently shut. To test its cryogenic testing equipment, it resided for a time at the Massey's site, a former nearby gun range.
During the third week of May 2023, Ship 25 was moved to the launch site and lifted onto the suborbital pad B platform in preparation for engine testing. On 21 June 2023, Ship 25 performed a successful spin prime test.
On June 24, 2023, it was announced that S25 would be the first vehicle to utilize hot staging (when the ship fires its engines when some of the boosters engines are still firing). On June 26, 2023, Ship 25 underwent its first static fire test, igniting all six engines. On August 5, 2023, it was moved to the Rocket Garden for final TPS work.
On September 5, 2023, it was moved back to the Orbital Launch Site, followed by stacking onto B9. On September 14, 2023, it was removed from B9. On September 27, 2023, it was lifted back onto B9, before being destacked on October 5, 2023.
Ship 26 and 27:
Ship 26 and 27 are expendable Starship prototypes, as they lack heat shield tiles and flaps. Ship 26 has no payload bay door, whereas Ship 27 does feature a reinforced payload dispenser designed to carry Starlink satellites.
Ship 26, after several cryo tests, was moved to the engine install stand. Ship 27 was scrapped on July 20, 2023. After S27 scrapping was complete, S26 moved to the rocket garden. On September 9, 2023, S26 was moved to Suborbital Pad B for static fire testing. It underwent a cryogenic test on October 9, 2023.
Ship 28 and subsequent:
Ships 28 through 31 feature heat shield tiles, as well as reinforced Starlink dispensers. In July 2023, S28 underwent cryogenic testing, before being moved onto the engine install stand. On August 18, 2023, S28 began to have its engines installed. On September 22, 2023, S29 was moved to Masseys for cryogenic testing. On September 26, 2023, S29 was cryogenically tested.
Starship Test Articles:
The spacecraft is designed to transport both crew and cargo to a variety of destinations, including Earth orbit, the Moon, Mars, and potentially beyond. It is intended to enable long duration interplanetary flights for a crew of up to 100 people. It will also be capable of point-to-point transport on Earth, enabling travel to anywhere in the world in less than an hour.
Furthermore, the spacecraft will be used to refuel other Starship vehicles to allow them to reach higher orbits and other space destinations.
Elon Musk, the CEO of SpaceX, estimated in a tweet that 8 launches would be needed to completely refuel a Starship in Low Earth Orbit, having extrapolated this by using Starship's payload to orbit and combining it with how much fuel a fully fueled Starship contains. To land on bodies without an atmosphere, such as the Moon, Starship will fire its engines and thrusters to slow down.
Development began in 2012, when Elon Musk, CEO of SpaceX, described a plan to build a reusable rocket system with substantially greater capabilities than the Falcon 9 and the planned Falcon Heavy. The rocket evolved through many design and name changes. On July 25, 2019, the Starhopper prototype performed the first successful flight at SpaceX Starbase near Boca Chica, Texas.
The SN15 prototype became the first full-size test spacecraft to take off and land successfully in May 2021. On April 20, 2023, Ship 24 and Booster 7 lifted off the pad, the first time the booster and starship flew together as a fully integrated stack.
History:
Mars Colonial Transporter:
This concept was announced in 2012. It was a launch system that was hoped to be able to send 100 tonnes (220,400 pounds) to Low Earth Orbit. It was referred to internally as the ‘Big Fucking Rocket’, and the second stage spacecraft was known as the ‘Big Fucking Ship’.
Design:
The Starship spacecraft is 50 m (160 ft) tall, 9 m (30 ft) in diameter, and has 6 Raptor engines, 3 of which are optimized for usage in outer space. Future vehicles may have an additional 3 Raptor Vacuum engines for increased payload capacity.
The vehicle's payload bay, measuring 17 m (56 ft) tall by 8 m (26 ft) in diameter, is the largest of any active or planned launch vehicle; its internal volume of 1,000 m3 (35,000 cu ft) is slightly larger than the ISS's pressurized volume. SpaceX will also provide a 22 m (72 ft) tall payload bay configuration for even larger payloads.
Starship has a total propellant capacity of 1,200 t (2,600,000 lb) across its main tanks and header tanks. The header tanks are better insulated due to their position and are reserved for use to flip and land the spacecraft following reentry. A set of reaction control thrusters, which use the pressure in the fuel tank, control attitude while in space.
The spacecraft has four body flaps to control the spacecraft's orientation and help dissipate energy during atmospheric entry, composed of two forward flaps and two aft flaps.
According to SpaceX, the flaps replace the need for wings or tailplane, reduce the fuel needed for landing, and allow landing at destinations in the Solar System where runways don't exist (for example, Mars).
Under the forward flaps, hardpoints are used for lifting and catching the spacecraft via mechanical arms. The flap's hinges are sealed in aero-covers because they would be easily damaged during reentry.
Starship's heat shield, composed of thousands of hexagonal black tiles that can withstand temperatures of 1,400 °C (2,600 °F), is designed to be used many times without maintenance between flights. The tiles are made of silica and are attached with pins rather than glued, with small gaps in between to counteract heat expansion. Their hexagonal shape facilitate mass production and prevent hot plasma from causing severe damage to the vehicle.
Variants:
For satellite launch, Starship will have a large cargo door that will open to release payloads and close upon reentry instead of a more conventional jettisonable nose-cone fairing. Instead of a cleanroom, payloads are integrated directly into Starship's payload bay, which requires purging the payload bay with temperature-controlled ISO class 8 clean air.
To deploy Starlink satellites, the cargo door will be replaced with a slot and dispenser rack, whose mechanism has been compared to a Pez candy dispenser.
Crewed Starship vehicles would replace the cargo bay with a pressurized crew section and have a life support system. For long-duration missions, such as crewed flights to Mars, SpaceX describes the interior as potentially including "private cabins, large communal areas, centralized storage, solar storm shelters, and a viewing gallery." Starship's life support system is expected to recycle resources such as air and water from waste.
Starship Human Landing System (HLS) is a crewed lunar lander variant of the Starship vehicle that is extensively modified for landing, operation, and takeoff from the lunar surface. It features:
- modified landing legs,
- a body-mounted solar array,
- a set of thrusters mounted mid-body to assist with final landing and takeoff,
- two airlocks,
- and an elevator to lower crew and cargo onto the lunar surface.
Starship HLS will be able to land more than 100 t (220,000 lb) of payload on the Moon per flight.
Starship will be able to be refuelled by docking with separately launched Starship propellant tanker spacecraft in orbit. Doing so would increase the spacecraft's mass capacity and allow it to reach higher-energy targets, such as geosynchronous orbit, the Moon, and Mars.
A Starship propellant depot could cache methane and oxygen on-orbit, and will be used by Starship HLS to replenish its fuel tanks.
Development:
For a list of test flights of the vehicle, see SpaceX Starship flight tests
Starship's development is iterative and incremental, using frequent—and often destructive— tests on a series of rocket prototypes.
SpaceX prototypes are subjected to many tests before they can be launched. Proof pressure tests come first. The tanks are filled with a liquid or gas to test their strength and safety factor.
SpaceX tests some tanks beyond the specified limit, to find the point at which they burst. The engines were tested in later prototypes, while the vehicle remained tethered to the ground (static fire). After passing these tests vehicles launch, either flying within the atmosphere, or reaching orbit.
YouTube Videos of Starship flight tests:
From NASASpaceFlight.com and SpaceX
- Starhopper 150m hop
- Starship SN5 150m hop
- Starship SN6 150m hop
- Starship SN8 12.5km test flight
- Starship SN9 10km test flight
- Starship SN10 10km test flight
- Starship SN11 10km test flight
- Starship SN15 10km test flight
- Starship S24/B7 Orbital test flight
Click here for a chart covering a List of Starship prototypes
Starhopper
Construction on the initial steel test article--Starship Hopper, Hopper, Hoppy, or Starhopper began at Boca Chica in 2018. Starhopper had a single engine and was test flown to develop landing and low-altitude/low-velocity control algorithms.
Starhopper used LOX and liquid methane fuel.
Testing:
It passed tanking tests, wet dress rehearsals, and pre-burner tests. A storm blew over and damaged Starhopper's nose cone. SpaceX continued testing without one.
It then passed a static fire test, and in a tethered test reached 1 meter altitude. On July 25, a Starhopper test flight reached about 20 m (66 ft) altitude, followed by a August 27 test that rose to 150 m (490 ft) and landed about 100 m (330 ft) from the launchpad, the Raptor's first use in flight.
Mark series (Mk1 – Mk4):
SpaceX began building two high-altitude prototypes simultaneously, Mk1 in Texas and Mk2 in Florida, using competing teams that shared progress, insights, and build techniques.
These vehicles featured three Raptor methalox engines and were meant to reach an altitude 5 km (3.1 mi). An Mk3 prototype began construction in late-2019.
Mk1 was 9 m (30 ft) in diameter and about 50 m (160 ft) tall, with an empty mass of 200 t (440,000 lb). It was intended for testing flight and reentry profiles, in pursuit of a suborbital flight.
When announced, it boasted three sea-level Raptors, two fins each at the front and back, and a nose cone containing cold-gas reaction control thrusters,. all of which were removed thereafter.
Mk4 construction began in Florida in October, but was scrapped after a few weeks.
On November 20, 2019, Mk1 blew apart during a pressure test. Mk2 was never completed.
In December 2019, Musk redesignated Mk3 as Starship SN1 and predicted that minor design improvements would continue through SN20. In January 2020, SpaceX performed pressurization tests in Boca Chica.
One test intentionally destroyed the tank by over-pressurizing it to 7.1 bar (103 psi).
Another tank underwent at least two pressurization tests; the first failed at 7.5 bar (109 psi). After repairs the tank was cryogenic pressure tested (January 29), and ruptured at 8.5 bar (123 psi). The test was considered a success as 8.5 represented a safety factor of 1.4 times the 6 bar (87 psi) operational pressure.
SpaceX began stacking SN1 in February 2020 after successful pressurization tests on propellant tank prototypes. SN1 was destroyed during a cryogenic pressurization test (February 28) due to a design flaw in the lower tank thrust structure.
Hops (SN3 – SN6):
SN3 and SN4:
SN3 was destroyed during testing on April 3, 2020 due to a bad testing configuration.
SN4 passed cryogenic pressure testing (April 26) and two static fires (May 5 and 7): one tested the main tanks, while the other tested the fuel header tank. After uninstalling the engine, a new cryogenic pressure test was conducted (May 19). A leak in the methane fuel piping ignited, causing significant damage to the rocket's base, destroying the control wiring. SN4 was destroyed (May 29), due to a failure with the Ground Support Equipment's quick-disconnect function.
SN5 and SN6:
After a static fire test (July 30), SN5 completed a 150-meter flight (August 4) with engine SN27. SN6 completed a static fire (August 24) and a 150-meter hop test flight with engine SN29 (September 3).
In January 2021, SN6 was scrapped, followed by SN5 in February.
High-altitude test flights (SN8 – SN15):
SN8 and SN9:
SN8 was planned to be built out of 304L stainless steel, although some parts may have used 301 steel. In late October and November, SN8 survived four static fires. During the third test (November 12), debris from the pad caused the vehicle to lose pneumatics.
Launch took place on December 9. The launch, ascent, reorientation, and controlled descent were successful, but low pressure in the methane header tank kept the engines from producing enough thrust for the landing burn, destroying SN8 on impact.
On December 11, the stand beneath SN9 failed, causing the vehicle to tip and contact the walls inside the High Bay. SN9 then required a replacement forward flap. SN9 conducted 6 static fires in January 2021, including three separate static fires.
Engines 44 and 46 had to be replaced. After struggling to gain FAA permission, SN9 conducted a 10 km (6.2 mi) flight test (February 2). Ascent, engine cutoffs, reorientation and controlled descent were stable, but one engine's oxygen pre-burner failed, sending SN9 crashing into the landing pad. The landing pad was then reinforced with an additional layer of concrete.
After the SN9 failure, all three engines were used to perform the belly flop landing sequence. This offered a failsafe should one fail to ignite.
SN10 – SN14:
SN10's first cryogenic proof test succeeded (February 8), followed by a static fire (February 23). After an engine swap came another static fire (February 25).
Two launch attempts were conducted on March 3. The first attempt was automatically aborted after one engine produced too much thrust while throttling up. After a 3-hour delay to increase the tolerance, the second attempt landed without exploding.
The test ended with a hard landing-at 10 m/s-most likely due to partial helium ingestion from the fuel header tank. Three landing legs were not locked in place, producing a slight lean after landing. Although the vehicle initially remained intact, the impact crushed the legs and part of the leg skirt. Eight minutes later the prototype exploded.
SN11 accomplished a cryogenic proof test (March 12) that included a test of the Reaction Control System (RCS), followed by a static fire test (March 15). Immediately after ignition, the test was aborted. Another static fire attempt led to reports that one of the three engines had been removed for repairs. A replacement engine was installed and a third static fire was attempted (March 26).
A 10 km flight test was conducted in heavy fog (March 30). The test included engine cutoffs, flip maneuver, flap control and descent, along with a visible fire on engine 2 during the ascent.
Just after the defective engine was re-ignited for the landing burn, SN11 lost telemetry at T+ 5:49 and disintegrated. SN12 through SN14 never launched.
SN15 – SN19:
SN15 introduced improved avionics software, an updated aft skirt propellant architecture, and a new Raptor design and configuration. A Starlink antenna on the side of the vehicle was another new feature. SN15 underwent an ambient temperature pressure test (April 9)
A cryogenic proof test (April 12), and a header tank cryogenic proof test (April 13). Then a static fire (April 26) and a header tank static fire (April 27) followed. A 10 km (33,000 ft) high-altitude flight test was conducted in overcast weather on May 5, achieving a soft touchdown.
A small fire near the base was controlled shortly after landing. After its engines were removed, it was retired on May 31, the first Starship prototype to fly, land and be recovered. It took its place in the Rocket Garden. SN16 and SN17 were scrapped, and SN18 and SN19 were never completed. On July 26, 2023, SN15 was scrapped.
Orbital launches (SN20/Ship 20 and subsequent):
SN20/Ship 20 – Ship 23:
SN20 (Ship 20) resides in the Rocket Garden, previously planned to be launched atop the Super Heavy booster. SN20's thermal protection system covers much of the vehicle.
SN20 rolled out to the launch mount on August 5, 2021, and was the first to be stacked on a booster. It used Booster 4 for a fit test.
FCC filings in May 2021 by SpaceX stated that the orbital flight would launch from Boca Chica. After separation, Starship would enter orbit and around 90 minutes later attempt a soft ocean landing around 100 km off the coast of Kauai.
Ship 21 was scrapped, Ship 22 moved out to the Rocket Garden in late February 2022. Ship 23 was scrapped and partially recycled in Ship 24 which was targeted for an orbital flight as of September 2022. As of July 31, 2023, Ship 22's forward flaps have been attached to Ship 29's nosecone.
Ship 24:
Further information: SpaceX Starship Integrated Flight Test
As of December 2022, Ship 24 was planned to make an orbital test flight atop Booster 7. It was first spotted in November 2021, and made cryogenic proof tests on 2, 6, and June 7, 2022. Starship 24 then conducted spin prime tests on 18, 20, and July 21, 2022, with an additional one on August 8, 2022.
It was static fired with two engines on August 9, 2022.
On September 8, 2022, Ship 24 underwent a static fire test where all six of its engines; three sea level and three vacuum engines, endured an 8-second test. The test damaged/destroyed around 30 of its 25,000 ceramic tiles.
The ship went through repairs and was subsequently stacked on top of Booster 7 in late October ahead of further testing. As of January 26, 2023, Ship 24 was rolled back to the production site for final TPS work for orbital test flight. On April 20, 2023, it
was intentionally destroyed in flight along with Booster 7 after spinning out of control.
In response to the launch damage caused by the first orbital flight attempt, SpaceX plan to put steel plates cooled by a water-system underneath the launch mount for the next Starship launch. According to Elon Musk, the launch tower has no meaningful damage although it was struck by large chunks of concrete.
Ship 25:
Ship 25 is a Starship prototype very similar to the destroyed Ship 24, currently slated to fly on the second Integrated Flight Test with Booster 9. Like Ship 24, it features a heat shield. A payload bay was also built, but it was sealed permanently shut. To test its cryogenic testing equipment, it resided for a time at the Massey's site, a former nearby gun range.
During the third week of May 2023, Ship 25 was moved to the launch site and lifted onto the suborbital pad B platform in preparation for engine testing. On 21 June 2023, Ship 25 performed a successful spin prime test.
On June 24, 2023, it was announced that S25 would be the first vehicle to utilize hot staging (when the ship fires its engines when some of the boosters engines are still firing). On June 26, 2023, Ship 25 underwent its first static fire test, igniting all six engines. On August 5, 2023, it was moved to the Rocket Garden for final TPS work.
On September 5, 2023, it was moved back to the Orbital Launch Site, followed by stacking onto B9. On September 14, 2023, it was removed from B9. On September 27, 2023, it was lifted back onto B9, before being destacked on October 5, 2023.
Ship 26 and 27:
Ship 26 and 27 are expendable Starship prototypes, as they lack heat shield tiles and flaps. Ship 26 has no payload bay door, whereas Ship 27 does feature a reinforced payload dispenser designed to carry Starlink satellites.
Ship 26, after several cryo tests, was moved to the engine install stand. Ship 27 was scrapped on July 20, 2023. After S27 scrapping was complete, S26 moved to the rocket garden. On September 9, 2023, S26 was moved to Suborbital Pad B for static fire testing. It underwent a cryogenic test on October 9, 2023.
Ship 28 and subsequent:
Ships 28 through 31 feature heat shield tiles, as well as reinforced Starlink dispensers. In July 2023, S28 underwent cryogenic testing, before being moved onto the engine install stand. On August 18, 2023, S28 began to have its engines installed. On September 22, 2023, S29 was moved to Masseys for cryogenic testing. On September 26, 2023, S29 was cryogenically tested.
Starship Test Articles:
General test articles (above chart):
Test Tank 1 (TT1) was a subscale test tank consisting of two forward bulkheads connected by a small barrel section. TT1 was used to test new materials and construction methods. On January 10, 2020, TT1 was filled with water and tested to failure as part of an ambient temperature test, reaching a pressure of 7.1 bar (103 psi).
Test Tank 2 (TT2) was another subscale test tank similar to TT1. On January 27, 2020, TT2 underwent an ambient temperature pressure test where it reached a pressure of 7.5 bar (109 psi) before a leak occurred. Two days later, it underwent a cryogenic proof test to destruction, bursting at 8.5 bar (123 psi).
GSE 4.1 was first spotted in August 2021, and was the first ground support equipment (GSE) test tank built, made from parts of GSE 4. It underwent a cryogenic proof test (August 23) before it was rolled to Sanchez site. It was rolled back to the launch site in November 2021 and underwent an apparent cryogenic proof test to failure (January 18), where it burst at an unknown pressure.
EDOME is a test tank created to test flatter domes, which was later used on Starship prototypes. It was moved to the launch site in July 2022, and back to the production site the next month, and never received testing. It was later moved from the production site to the new Masseys site on September 22, 2022, which conducts non-flight hardware testing. On September 30, 2022, it burst during a cryogenic pressure test to failure. After repairs, it was tested to destruction in late October 2022.
EDOME 2 is a test tank likely designed to further test the flatter dome design. As of October 4, 2023, it's official designation is unknown.
Liquid Oxygen Header Test Tank (LOX HTT) was similar to TT1, but was based on the LOX Header tank inside a nosecone section. On January 24, 2020, the tank underwent a pressurization test which lasted several hours. The following day it was tested to destruction.
SN2 was a half-size test tank used to test welding quality and thrust puck design. The thrust puck is found on the bottom of the vehicle where in later Starship tests up to three sea-level Raptor engines would be mounted. SN2 passed a pressure test on March 8, 2020.
SN7 was a pathfinder test article for the switch to type 304L stainless steel. A cryogenic proof test was performed on June 15, 2020, achieving a pressure of 7.6 bar (110 psi) before a leak occurred. During a pressurize to failure test on June 23, 2020, the tank burst at an unknown pressure.
SN7.1 was the second 304L test tank, with the goal of reaching a higher failure pressure. The tank was repeatedly tested in September, and tested to destruction on September 23. The bulkhead came apart at a pressure of 8 bar (115 psi) in ullage and 9 bar (130 psi) at base.
SN7.2 was created to test thinner walls, and therefore, lower mass. It is believed to be constructed from 3 mm steel sheets rather than the 4 mm thickness of its predecessors. On January 26, 2021, SN7.2 passed a cryogenic proof test. On February 4, during a pressurize to failure test, the tank developed a leak. On March 15, SN7.2 was retired.
S26.1 is a test tank designed to test the aft section of ships after S24. It conducted two tests on the can-crusher, before being moved off in July 2023. On September 21, 2023, it was tested to destruction.
S24.2 is test article designed to test the payload bay of Starlink dispenser vehicles. On September 28, 2023, it was moved to the Masseys test site.
See also:
Test Tank 1 (TT1) was a subscale test tank consisting of two forward bulkheads connected by a small barrel section. TT1 was used to test new materials and construction methods. On January 10, 2020, TT1 was filled with water and tested to failure as part of an ambient temperature test, reaching a pressure of 7.1 bar (103 psi).
Test Tank 2 (TT2) was another subscale test tank similar to TT1. On January 27, 2020, TT2 underwent an ambient temperature pressure test where it reached a pressure of 7.5 bar (109 psi) before a leak occurred. Two days later, it underwent a cryogenic proof test to destruction, bursting at 8.5 bar (123 psi).
GSE 4.1 was first spotted in August 2021, and was the first ground support equipment (GSE) test tank built, made from parts of GSE 4. It underwent a cryogenic proof test (August 23) before it was rolled to Sanchez site. It was rolled back to the launch site in November 2021 and underwent an apparent cryogenic proof test to failure (January 18), where it burst at an unknown pressure.
EDOME is a test tank created to test flatter domes, which was later used on Starship prototypes. It was moved to the launch site in July 2022, and back to the production site the next month, and never received testing. It was later moved from the production site to the new Masseys site on September 22, 2022, which conducts non-flight hardware testing. On September 30, 2022, it burst during a cryogenic pressure test to failure. After repairs, it was tested to destruction in late October 2022.
EDOME 2 is a test tank likely designed to further test the flatter dome design. As of October 4, 2023, it's official designation is unknown.
Liquid Oxygen Header Test Tank (LOX HTT) was similar to TT1, but was based on the LOX Header tank inside a nosecone section. On January 24, 2020, the tank underwent a pressurization test which lasted several hours. The following day it was tested to destruction.
SN2 was a half-size test tank used to test welding quality and thrust puck design. The thrust puck is found on the bottom of the vehicle where in later Starship tests up to three sea-level Raptor engines would be mounted. SN2 passed a pressure test on March 8, 2020.
SN7 was a pathfinder test article for the switch to type 304L stainless steel. A cryogenic proof test was performed on June 15, 2020, achieving a pressure of 7.6 bar (110 psi) before a leak occurred. During a pressurize to failure test on June 23, 2020, the tank burst at an unknown pressure.
SN7.1 was the second 304L test tank, with the goal of reaching a higher failure pressure. The tank was repeatedly tested in September, and tested to destruction on September 23. The bulkhead came apart at a pressure of 8 bar (115 psi) in ullage and 9 bar (130 psi) at base.
SN7.2 was created to test thinner walls, and therefore, lower mass. It is believed to be constructed from 3 mm steel sheets rather than the 4 mm thickness of its predecessors. On January 26, 2021, SN7.2 passed a cryogenic proof test. On February 4, during a pressurize to failure test, the tank developed a leak. On March 15, SN7.2 was retired.
S26.1 is a test tank designed to test the aft section of ships after S24. It conducted two tests on the can-crusher, before being moved off in July 2023. On September 21, 2023, it was tested to destruction.
S24.2 is test article designed to test the payload bay of Starlink dispenser vehicles. On September 28, 2023, it was moved to the Masseys test site.
See also:
Culinary Tourism including Culinary Arts and Cooking Schools
- YouTube Video: What Is Culinary Tourism And Where Are The Best Destinations For Food Tourists?
- YouTube Video: What is Culinary Arts?
- YouTube Video: The Best Cooking Secrets Real Chefs Learn In Culinary School
Culinary tourism
Culinary tourism or food tourism or gastronomy tourism is the exploration of food as the purpose of tourism. It is considered a vital component of the tourism experience.
Dining out is common among tourists and "food is believed to rank alongside climate, accommodation, and scenery" in importance to tourists.
Culinary tourism became prominent in 2001 after Erik Wolf, president of the World Food Travel Association, wrote a white paper on the subject.
Overview
Culinary or food tourism is the pursuit of unique and memorable eating and drinking experiences, both near and far.
Culinary tourism differs from agritourism in that culinary tourism is considered a subset of cultural tourism (cuisine is a manifestation of culture) whereas agritourism is considered a subset of rural tourism, but culinary tourism and agritourism are inextricably linked, as the seeds of cuisine can be found in agriculture.
Culinary/food tourism is not limited to gourmet food. Food tourism can be considered a subcategory of experiential travel.
While many cities, regions, or countries are known for their food, culinary tourism is not limited by food culture. Every tourist eats about three times a day, making food one of the fundamental economic drivers of tourism.
Countries like Ireland, Peru, and Canada are making a significant investment in culinary tourism development and are seeing results with visitor spending and overnight stays rising as a result of food tourism promotion and product development.
Food tourism includes activities such as taking cooking classes; going on food or drink tours; attending food and beverage festivals; participating in specialty dining experiences; shopping at specialty retail spaces; and visiting farms, markets, and producers.
Economic impact:
The World Food Travel Association estimates that food and beverage expenses account for 15% to 35% of all tourism spending, depending on the affordability of the destination. The WFTA lists possible food tourism benefits as including more visitors, more sales, more media attention, increased tax revenue, and greater community pride.
Cooking classes:
A growing area of culinary tourism is cooking classes. The formats vary from a short lesson lasting a few hours to full-day and multi-day courses. The focus for foreign tourists will usually be on the cuisine of the country they are visiting, whereas local tourists may be keen to experience cuisines new to them.
Many cooking classes also include market tours to enhance the cultural experience. Some cooking classes are held in local people's homes, allowing foreign tourists to catch a glimpse of what daily life and cuisine look like for those in the country they're visiting.
Both the local hosts and foreign guests benefit from the cross-cultural experience.
Food tours
Food tours vary by locale and by operator. They are common in major cities such as:
June 10, 2017, was the first annual National Food Tour Day, celebrating food tourism around the world. The World Food Travel Association introduced World Food Travel Day on April 18, 2018, as a way to put the spotlight on how and why we travel to experience the world's culinary cultures. It is designed to bring awareness to both consumers and trade, and support the Association's mission – to preserve and promote culinary cultures through hospitality and tourism.
National Food Tour Day day is celebrated all around the world every year on April 18.
Benefits of Culinary or food tourism:
Food tourism offers a multitude of benefits for travelers, including:
Culinary arts
Culinary arts are the cuisine arts of food preparation, cooking, and presentation of food, usually in the form of meals. People working in this field – especially in establishments such as restaurants – are commonly called chefs or cooks, although, at its most general, the terms culinary artist and culinarian are also used. Table manners (the table arts) are sometimes referred to as a culinary art.
Expert chefs are in charge of making meals that are both aesthetically beautiful and delicious. This often requires understanding of food science, nutrition, and diet. Delicatessens and relatively large institutions like hotels and hospitals rank as their principal workplaces after restaurants.
History:
The origins of culinary arts began with primitive humans roughly 2 million years ago. Various theories exist as to how early humans used fire to cook meat. According to anthropologist Richard Wrangham, author of Catching Fire: How Cooking Made Us Human, primitive humans simply tossed a raw hunk of meat into the flames and watched it sizzle.
Another theory claims humans may first have savoured roasted meat by chance when the flesh of a beast killed in a forest fire was found to be more appetizing and easier to chew and digest than conventional raw meat.
Culinary techniques improved with the introduction of earthenware and stoneware, the domestication of livestock, and advancements in agriculture. In early civilizations, the primary employers of professional chefs were kings, aristocrats, or priests. The divide between professional chefs cooking for the wealthy and peasants cooking for their families engendered the development of many cuisines.
Much of the study of culinary arts in Europe was organized by Jean Anthelme Brillat-Savarin, a man famous for his quote "Tell me what you eat, and I will tell you what you are", which has since been mistranslated and oversimplified into "You are what you eat".
Other people helped to parse out the different parts of food science and gastronomy. Over time, increasingly deeper and more detailed studies into foods and the culinary arts has led to a greater wealth of knowledge.
In Asia, a similar path led to a separate study of the culinary arts, which later essentially merged with the Western counterpart. In the modern international marketplace, there is no longer a distinct divide between Western and Eastern foods.
Culinary arts students today, generally speaking, are introduced to the different cuisines of many different cultures from around the world.
The culinary arts, in the Western world, as a craft and later as a field of study, began to evolve at the end of the Renaissance period. Prior to this, chefs worked in castles, cooking for kings and queens, as well as their families, guests, and other workers of the castle.
As Monarchical rule became phased out as a modality, the chefs took their craft to inns and hotels. From here, the craft evolved into a field of study.
Before cooking institutions, professional cooks were mentors for individual students who apprenticed under them. In 1879, the first cooking school was founded in the United States: the Boston Cooking School. This school standardized cooking practices and recipes, and laid the groundwork for the culinary arts schools that would follow.
Tools and techniques:
An integral part of the culinary arts are the tools, known as cooking or kitchen utensils, that are used by both professional chefs and home cooks alike. Professionals in the culinary arts often call these utensils by the French term "batterie de cuisine" These tools vary in materials and use.
Cooking implements are made with anything from wood, glass, and various types of metals, to the newer silicone and plastic that can be seen in many kitchens today.
Within the realm of the culinary arts, there is a wide array of different cooking techniques that originate from various cultures and continue to develop over time as these techniques are shared between cultures and progress with new technology. Different cooking techniques require the use of certain tools, foods and heat sources in order to produce a specific desired result.
The professional kitchen may utilize certain techniques that a home cook might not, such as the use of an expensive professional grill.
Professional study:
Modern culinary arts students study many different aspects of food. Specific areas of study include:
Training in culinary arts is possible in most countries around the world usually at the tertiary level (university) with institutions government funded, privately funded or commercial.
Professional Culinary Arts Programmes are curated educational and skills studies over a 3-year period with select Universities and Hotel and Culinary schools.
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Cooking Schools
A cooking school is an institution devoted to education in the art and science of cooking and food preparation.
There are many different types of cooking schools around the world, some devoted to training professional chefs, others aimed at amateur enthusiasts, with some being a mixture of the two.
Amateur cooking schools are often intertwined with culinary tourism in many countries. Programs can vary from half a day to several years. Some programs lead to an academic degree or a recognized vocational qualification, while others do not. Many programs include practical experience in the kitchen of a restaurant attached to the school or a period of work experience in a privately owned restaurant.
History
Culinary education in the United States is a fairly new concept in relation to culinary education in Europe. Charles Ranhoffer, chef of the early fine dining restaurant Delmonico's, published a national magazine named "Chef" in 1898 which included one of the first calls to establish a training school for cooks in the United States.
Until this point, Ranhoffer had been looking to Europe to solve his staffing problems, however, it began to be too expensive and too much work. In 1911, the United States promoted a system similar to the European one, in which apprentices would have to complete a 6,000-hour work commitment in order to become certified as a chef.
The first significant private cooking school in America was the Boston Cooking School, which was created in 1877, however, one of the most notable was the creation of The Culinary Institute of America in 1946.
The Culinary Institute of America brought about a new way to better educate culinary professionals, by teaching students the theory behind their future work and also requiring them to complete an 18-week paid internship at an approved restaurant, requiring them to create at least 51 percent of their product from scratch. The school uses mainly hands-on teaching styles, ensuring that students learn through experience.
Curricula:
Some schools, such as Le Cordon Bleu, offer programs through which a chef may demonstrate his or her knowledge and skills and be given certification. Others, such as Baltimore International College, Stratford University, Johnson and Wales University, and the Culinary Institute of America offer programs whereby students gain either an Associate's or Bachelor's degree.
There are also a few, such as Ivy Tech Community College of Indiana, Manchester Community College in Connecticut, Los Angeles Trade Technical College in California, or where students receive upon graduation not only an Associate's degree but also certification by the American Culinary Federation, the largest professional chefs' organization in North America.
Notable culinary colleges:
See also:
Culinary tourism or food tourism or gastronomy tourism is the exploration of food as the purpose of tourism. It is considered a vital component of the tourism experience.
Dining out is common among tourists and "food is believed to rank alongside climate, accommodation, and scenery" in importance to tourists.
Culinary tourism became prominent in 2001 after Erik Wolf, president of the World Food Travel Association, wrote a white paper on the subject.
Overview
Culinary or food tourism is the pursuit of unique and memorable eating and drinking experiences, both near and far.
Culinary tourism differs from agritourism in that culinary tourism is considered a subset of cultural tourism (cuisine is a manifestation of culture) whereas agritourism is considered a subset of rural tourism, but culinary tourism and agritourism are inextricably linked, as the seeds of cuisine can be found in agriculture.
Culinary/food tourism is not limited to gourmet food. Food tourism can be considered a subcategory of experiential travel.
While many cities, regions, or countries are known for their food, culinary tourism is not limited by food culture. Every tourist eats about three times a day, making food one of the fundamental economic drivers of tourism.
Countries like Ireland, Peru, and Canada are making a significant investment in culinary tourism development and are seeing results with visitor spending and overnight stays rising as a result of food tourism promotion and product development.
Food tourism includes activities such as taking cooking classes; going on food or drink tours; attending food and beverage festivals; participating in specialty dining experiences; shopping at specialty retail spaces; and visiting farms, markets, and producers.
Economic impact:
The World Food Travel Association estimates that food and beverage expenses account for 15% to 35% of all tourism spending, depending on the affordability of the destination. The WFTA lists possible food tourism benefits as including more visitors, more sales, more media attention, increased tax revenue, and greater community pride.
Cooking classes:
A growing area of culinary tourism is cooking classes. The formats vary from a short lesson lasting a few hours to full-day and multi-day courses. The focus for foreign tourists will usually be on the cuisine of the country they are visiting, whereas local tourists may be keen to experience cuisines new to them.
Many cooking classes also include market tours to enhance the cultural experience. Some cooking classes are held in local people's homes, allowing foreign tourists to catch a glimpse of what daily life and cuisine look like for those in the country they're visiting.
Both the local hosts and foreign guests benefit from the cross-cultural experience.
Food tours
Food tours vary by locale and by operator. They are common in major cities such as:
- London,
- Paris,
- Rome,
- Florence,
- Toronto,
- Kuala Lumpur,
- and Barcelona.
June 10, 2017, was the first annual National Food Tour Day, celebrating food tourism around the world. The World Food Travel Association introduced World Food Travel Day on April 18, 2018, as a way to put the spotlight on how and why we travel to experience the world's culinary cultures. It is designed to bring awareness to both consumers and trade, and support the Association's mission – to preserve and promote culinary cultures through hospitality and tourism.
National Food Tour Day day is celebrated all around the world every year on April 18.
Benefits of Culinary or food tourism:
Food tourism offers a multitude of benefits for travelers, including:
- Opportunities to try unique and authentic dishes
- Immersion into local or street food culture
- History and Traditions Behind the Food We Eat
- Supporting local economies by patronizing small businesses and food markets
Culinary arts
Culinary arts are the cuisine arts of food preparation, cooking, and presentation of food, usually in the form of meals. People working in this field – especially in establishments such as restaurants – are commonly called chefs or cooks, although, at its most general, the terms culinary artist and culinarian are also used. Table manners (the table arts) are sometimes referred to as a culinary art.
Expert chefs are in charge of making meals that are both aesthetically beautiful and delicious. This often requires understanding of food science, nutrition, and diet. Delicatessens and relatively large institutions like hotels and hospitals rank as their principal workplaces after restaurants.
History:
The origins of culinary arts began with primitive humans roughly 2 million years ago. Various theories exist as to how early humans used fire to cook meat. According to anthropologist Richard Wrangham, author of Catching Fire: How Cooking Made Us Human, primitive humans simply tossed a raw hunk of meat into the flames and watched it sizzle.
Another theory claims humans may first have savoured roasted meat by chance when the flesh of a beast killed in a forest fire was found to be more appetizing and easier to chew and digest than conventional raw meat.
Culinary techniques improved with the introduction of earthenware and stoneware, the domestication of livestock, and advancements in agriculture. In early civilizations, the primary employers of professional chefs were kings, aristocrats, or priests. The divide between professional chefs cooking for the wealthy and peasants cooking for their families engendered the development of many cuisines.
Much of the study of culinary arts in Europe was organized by Jean Anthelme Brillat-Savarin, a man famous for his quote "Tell me what you eat, and I will tell you what you are", which has since been mistranslated and oversimplified into "You are what you eat".
Other people helped to parse out the different parts of food science and gastronomy. Over time, increasingly deeper and more detailed studies into foods and the culinary arts has led to a greater wealth of knowledge.
In Asia, a similar path led to a separate study of the culinary arts, which later essentially merged with the Western counterpart. In the modern international marketplace, there is no longer a distinct divide between Western and Eastern foods.
Culinary arts students today, generally speaking, are introduced to the different cuisines of many different cultures from around the world.
The culinary arts, in the Western world, as a craft and later as a field of study, began to evolve at the end of the Renaissance period. Prior to this, chefs worked in castles, cooking for kings and queens, as well as their families, guests, and other workers of the castle.
As Monarchical rule became phased out as a modality, the chefs took their craft to inns and hotels. From here, the craft evolved into a field of study.
Before cooking institutions, professional cooks were mentors for individual students who apprenticed under them. In 1879, the first cooking school was founded in the United States: the Boston Cooking School. This school standardized cooking practices and recipes, and laid the groundwork for the culinary arts schools that would follow.
Tools and techniques:
An integral part of the culinary arts are the tools, known as cooking or kitchen utensils, that are used by both professional chefs and home cooks alike. Professionals in the culinary arts often call these utensils by the French term "batterie de cuisine" These tools vary in materials and use.
Cooking implements are made with anything from wood, glass, and various types of metals, to the newer silicone and plastic that can be seen in many kitchens today.
Within the realm of the culinary arts, there is a wide array of different cooking techniques that originate from various cultures and continue to develop over time as these techniques are shared between cultures and progress with new technology. Different cooking techniques require the use of certain tools, foods and heat sources in order to produce a specific desired result.
The professional kitchen may utilize certain techniques that a home cook might not, such as the use of an expensive professional grill.
Professional study:
Modern culinary arts students study many different aspects of food. Specific areas of study include:
- butchery,
- chemistry and thermodynamics,
- visual presentation,
- food safety,
- human nutrition and physiology,
- international history,
- menu planning,
- the manufacture of food items (such as the milling of wheat into flour or the refining of cane plants into crystalline sucrose),
- and many others.
Training in culinary arts is possible in most countries around the world usually at the tertiary level (university) with institutions government funded, privately funded or commercial.
Professional Culinary Arts Programmes are curated educational and skills studies over a 3-year period with select Universities and Hotel and Culinary schools.
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Cooking Schools
A cooking school is an institution devoted to education in the art and science of cooking and food preparation.
There are many different types of cooking schools around the world, some devoted to training professional chefs, others aimed at amateur enthusiasts, with some being a mixture of the two.
Amateur cooking schools are often intertwined with culinary tourism in many countries. Programs can vary from half a day to several years. Some programs lead to an academic degree or a recognized vocational qualification, while others do not. Many programs include practical experience in the kitchen of a restaurant attached to the school or a period of work experience in a privately owned restaurant.
History
Culinary education in the United States is a fairly new concept in relation to culinary education in Europe. Charles Ranhoffer, chef of the early fine dining restaurant Delmonico's, published a national magazine named "Chef" in 1898 which included one of the first calls to establish a training school for cooks in the United States.
Until this point, Ranhoffer had been looking to Europe to solve his staffing problems, however, it began to be too expensive and too much work. In 1911, the United States promoted a system similar to the European one, in which apprentices would have to complete a 6,000-hour work commitment in order to become certified as a chef.
The first significant private cooking school in America was the Boston Cooking School, which was created in 1877, however, one of the most notable was the creation of The Culinary Institute of America in 1946.
The Culinary Institute of America brought about a new way to better educate culinary professionals, by teaching students the theory behind their future work and also requiring them to complete an 18-week paid internship at an approved restaurant, requiring them to create at least 51 percent of their product from scratch. The school uses mainly hands-on teaching styles, ensuring that students learn through experience.
Curricula:
Some schools, such as Le Cordon Bleu, offer programs through which a chef may demonstrate his or her knowledge and skills and be given certification. Others, such as Baltimore International College, Stratford University, Johnson and Wales University, and the Culinary Institute of America offer programs whereby students gain either an Associate's or Bachelor's degree.
There are also a few, such as Ivy Tech Community College of Indiana, Manchester Community College in Connecticut, Los Angeles Trade Technical College in California, or where students receive upon graduation not only an Associate's degree but also certification by the American Culinary Federation, the largest professional chefs' organization in North America.
Notable culinary colleges:
- Art Institutes School of Culinary Arts
- Auguste Escoffier School of Culinary Arts
- Baltimore International College
- Cambridge School of Culinary Arts
- Cooking and Hospitality Institute of Chicago
- Culinard, The Culinary Institute of Virginia College
- The Culinary Institute of America
- Culinary Institute Lenôtre
- DCT University Center - Switzerland
- Institute of Culinary Education
- International Culinary Center
- Johnson & Wales University
- Kendall College - School of Culinary Arts
- Le Cordon Bleu
- New England Culinary Institute
- Niagara Falls Culinary Institute
- Paul Smith's College
- Schoolcraft College
- Stratford University
- Sullivan University
- Western Culinary Institute
- The Swiss Hotel School South Africa
See also:
- Vocational education
- Vocational school
- American Culinary Federation - Schools
- American Dietetic Association
- Foodpairing
- Cook (profession)
- Chef
- Cuisine
- Food studies
- Fooding
- Gastronomy
- Gourmet Library and museum
- Hospitality industry
- Restaurant
- Culinary Arts Degree – ciachef.edu
- What is Culinary arts – hospitalityinsights.ehl.edu
- Foodie
- Gourmet
- World Food Travel Association
Wine Tourism
- YouTube Video: Modern Marvels: How Wine Is Made - Full Episode (S13, E54) | History
- YouTube Video: The Art of Wine Tasting A Beginner's Guide
- YouTube Video: How One of California's Biggest Wineries Produces Over 12 Million Bottles per Year
Enotourism, oenotourism, wine tourism, or vinitourism refers to tourism whose purpose is or includes the tasting, consumption or purchase of wine, often at or near the source. Where other types of tourism are often passive in nature, enotourism can consist of visits to wineries, tasting wines, vineyard walks, or even taking an active part in the harvest.
History:
Enotourism is a relatively new form of tourism. Its history varies greatly from region to region, but in places such as the Napa Valley AVA and Wine Country, it saw heavy growth once a concerted marketing effort was implemented in 1975 that was given a further boost by the 1976 Judgment of Paris.
Other regions, such as Catalonia, Spain have only started marketing enotourism starting in the mid-2000s, primarily focusing on how it is an alternative form of tourism to the beach for which Spain is overall known.
There was also a rise in the profile of enotourism among English speakers with the 2004 release of the film, Sideways whose two central characters visit wineries and wine in the Santa Barbara region of Southern California.
Currently:
The industry around enotourism has grown significantly throughout the first decade of the 21st century. In the United States 27 million travelers, or 17% of American leisure travelers, engaged in culinary or wine-related activities. In Italy the figure stands at approximately five million travelers, generating 2.5 billion euros in revenue.
"Enotourism Day" is celebrated on the second Sunday of November each year to promote cellar visits in:
In North America, the first Wine Tourism Day was established for May 11, 2013 with events scheduled throughout the continent.
Chile has grown its enotourism industry in recent years, with several tourist routes being opened throughout the country, with several of them offering overnight accommodations.
Some of the popular wine tourism destinations in India include:
Famous Winefest is held in Sula, in February every year. Ten thousands of people visit this famous wine carnival every year.
Activities:
Most visits to the wineries take place at or near the site where the wine is produced. Visitors typically learn the history of the winery, see how the wine is made, and then taste the wines.
At some wineries, staying in a small guest house at the winery is also offered. Many visitors buy the wines made by the winery at the premises, accounting for up to 33% of their annual sales.
Very small, low production regions such as Priorat, Catalonia focus on small, intimate visits with the owner as the host and include walks through the vineyards to help visitors understand the unique qualities of the region.
More elaborate tastings can include horizontal and vertical tastings as well as full meals focused upon showcasing the wines.
As the enotourism industry matures, additional activities have been added to visits such as riding electrically assisted bicycles, called, "burricleta".
Harvest experience tours, also known as "harvest internships" or "crush camps," are tours or programs that allow visitors to experience the winemaking process firsthand by participating in the grape harvesting and crushing process. These tours are usually offered during the grape harvesting season, which varies depending on the region and the type of grapes being harvested.
Harvest experience tours can be a fun and educational way to learn about the winemaking process and to see behind the scenes at a working winery. The winery benefits from essentially free labor during the most demanding periods of wine production while participants may later be able to enjoy wines they personally had a hand in creating.
Other experiences include "wine and food pairing" tours, where visitors can learn about the art of pairing different wines with specific dishes, and cooking classes.
Future:
Most tourism agencies see it as a segment of the industry with tremendous growth potential, stating that in some regions, it's only functioning at 20% of its full potential.
As enotourism grows, regions such as Napa Valley have to deal with continued success and the effects that come with it, such as crowds and increased tasting room fees. This can, in turn have the opposite effect desired wherein potential visitors are driven away and turned off enotourism.
Many wine tourists are increasingly interested in visiting wineries that use sustainable practices and are environmentally responsible.
See also:
History:
Enotourism is a relatively new form of tourism. Its history varies greatly from region to region, but in places such as the Napa Valley AVA and Wine Country, it saw heavy growth once a concerted marketing effort was implemented in 1975 that was given a further boost by the 1976 Judgment of Paris.
Other regions, such as Catalonia, Spain have only started marketing enotourism starting in the mid-2000s, primarily focusing on how it is an alternative form of tourism to the beach for which Spain is overall known.
There was also a rise in the profile of enotourism among English speakers with the 2004 release of the film, Sideways whose two central characters visit wineries and wine in the Santa Barbara region of Southern California.
Currently:
The industry around enotourism has grown significantly throughout the first decade of the 21st century. In the United States 27 million travelers, or 17% of American leisure travelers, engaged in culinary or wine-related activities. In Italy the figure stands at approximately five million travelers, generating 2.5 billion euros in revenue.
"Enotourism Day" is celebrated on the second Sunday of November each year to promote cellar visits in:
- Germany,
- Austria,
- Slovenia,
- Spain,
- France,
- Greece,
- Hungary,
- Italy,
- and Portugal
In North America, the first Wine Tourism Day was established for May 11, 2013 with events scheduled throughout the continent.
Chile has grown its enotourism industry in recent years, with several tourist routes being opened throughout the country, with several of them offering overnight accommodations.
Some of the popular wine tourism destinations in India include:
- Sula Vineyard,
- Samba wine,
- Samba Wine and Chateau d'Ori in Nasik,
- Maharashtra,
- Chateau Indage Narayangaon,
- as well as Grover Vineyard in Nandi Hills,
- Karnataka .
Famous Winefest is held in Sula, in February every year. Ten thousands of people visit this famous wine carnival every year.
Activities:
Most visits to the wineries take place at or near the site where the wine is produced. Visitors typically learn the history of the winery, see how the wine is made, and then taste the wines.
At some wineries, staying in a small guest house at the winery is also offered. Many visitors buy the wines made by the winery at the premises, accounting for up to 33% of their annual sales.
Very small, low production regions such as Priorat, Catalonia focus on small, intimate visits with the owner as the host and include walks through the vineyards to help visitors understand the unique qualities of the region.
More elaborate tastings can include horizontal and vertical tastings as well as full meals focused upon showcasing the wines.
As the enotourism industry matures, additional activities have been added to visits such as riding electrically assisted bicycles, called, "burricleta".
Harvest experience tours, also known as "harvest internships" or "crush camps," are tours or programs that allow visitors to experience the winemaking process firsthand by participating in the grape harvesting and crushing process. These tours are usually offered during the grape harvesting season, which varies depending on the region and the type of grapes being harvested.
Harvest experience tours can be a fun and educational way to learn about the winemaking process and to see behind the scenes at a working winery. The winery benefits from essentially free labor during the most demanding periods of wine production while participants may later be able to enjoy wines they personally had a hand in creating.
Other experiences include "wine and food pairing" tours, where visitors can learn about the art of pairing different wines with specific dishes, and cooking classes.
Future:
Most tourism agencies see it as a segment of the industry with tremendous growth potential, stating that in some regions, it's only functioning at 20% of its full potential.
As enotourism grows, regions such as Napa Valley have to deal with continued success and the effects that come with it, such as crowds and increased tasting room fees. This can, in turn have the opposite effect desired wherein potential visitors are driven away and turned off enotourism.
Many wine tourists are increasingly interested in visiting wineries that use sustainable practices and are environmentally responsible.
See also:
Wildlife Tourism
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Wildlife tourism is an element of many nations' travel industry centered around observation and interaction with local animal and plant life in their natural habitats. While it can include eco- and animal-friendly tourism, safari hunting and similar high-intervention activities also fall under the umbrella of wildlife tourism.
Wildlife tourism, in its simplest sense, is interacting with wild animals in their natural habitat, either by actively (e.g. hunting/collection) or passively (e.g. watching/photography).
Wildlife tourism is an important part of the tourism industries in many countries including :
According to United Nations World Tourism Organization, with an annual growth about 3%, 7% of world tourism industry relates to wildlife tourism. They also estimates that the growth is much higher in places like UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Wildlife tourism currently employs 22 million people worldwide directly or indirectly, and contributes more than $ 120 billion to global GDP.
As a multimillion-dollar international industry, wildlife tourism is often characterized by the offering of customized tour packages and safaris to allow close access to wildlife.
Description:
Wildlife tourism mostly encompasses non-consumptive interactions with wildlife, such as observing and photographing animals in their natural habitats. It also includes viewing of and interacting with captive animals in zoos or wildlife parks, and can also include animal-riding (e.g. elephant riding) and consumptive activities such as fishing and hunting, which will generally not come under the definition of ecotourism and may compromise animal welfare.
It has the recreational aspects of adventure travel, and usually supports the values of ecotourism and nature conservation programs.
Negative impacts:
Wildlife tourism can cause significant disturbances to animals in their natural habitats. Even among the tourism practices which boast minimal-to-no direct contact with wildlife, the growing interest in traveling to developing countries has created a boom in resort and hotel construction, particularly on rain forest and mangrove forest lands.
Wildlife viewing can scare away animals, disrupt their feeding and nesting sites, or acclimate them to the presence of people. In Kenya, for example, wildlife-observer disruption drives cheetahs off their reserves, increasing the risk of inbreeding and further endangering the species.
The practice of selling slots for tourists to participate in sanctioned hunt and culls, though seemingly innocent, can serve to impact populations negatively through indirect means. Though culls can and do serve a crucial role in the maintenance of several ecosystems’ health, the lucrative nature of these operations lends itself to mimicry by unofficial groups and/or groups which are not fully aware of the potential negative impact of their actions.
This is especially true of big-game and highly marketable species. Such unofficial organizations can promote the hunting or collecting of wildlife for profit without participating in or being sanctioned by wildlife management authorities while mimicking organized operations to fool unwary tourists. Though not sanctioned by any authority, the fact that these operations are funded by tourists and fueled by wildlife classifies such illicit hunting activity as “wildlife tourism”.
Direct impacts:
The impacts wildlife tourism will have on wildlife depends on the scale of tourist development and the behavior and resilience of wildlife to the presence of humans.
When tourists activities occur during sensitive times of the life cycle (for example, during nesting season), and when they involve close approaches to wildlife for the purpose of identification or photography, the potential for disturbance is high. Not all species appear to be disturbed by tourists even within heavily visited areas.
Disturbing breeding patterns:
The pressures of tourists searching out wildlife to photograph or hunt can adversely affect hunting and feeding patterns, and the breeding success of some species. Some may even have long-term implications for behavioral and ecological relationships.
For example, an increase in boat traffic has disturbed the feeding of giant otters in Manú National Park, Peru. Further disturbance to wildlife occurs when tourist guides dig up turtle nests and chase swimming jaguars, tapirs, and otters to give clients better viewing opportunities.
On the shores of Lake Kariba in Zimbabwe, the number of tourist boats and the noise generated has disrupted the feeding and drinking patterns of elephants and the black rhinoceros - it is feared that further increases in boat traffic will affect their reproductive success. The disturbance caused by human intervention may prevent species from their regular breeding and feeding activities.
To avoid this, tourism activities are often restricted in breeding time of some species. Eravikulam National Park is an important habitat of the Nilgiri tahrs in the Western Ghats.
In Rajamala, the tourism zone in the Eravikulam National Park, in breeding season of Nilgiri tahr, visitors are barred from entering the sanctuary for two months from February every year, is an example.
Disturbing feeding patterns:
Artificial feeding of wildlife by tourists can have severe consequences for social behavior patterns. Artificial feeding by tourists caused a breakdown of the territorial breeding system of land iguanas on the South Plaza in the Galápagos Islands.
Territories were abandoned in favor of sites where food could be begged from tourists, and this has had a negative effect on the breeding success of iguanas. Artificial feeding can also result in a complete loss of normal feeding behaviors. In the Galápagos Islands, overfeeding by tourists was so extreme that, when stopped, some animals were unable to locate their natural food sources.
Similarly, until the early 1970s, the diet of some grizzly bears in Yellowstone National Park consisted, to a large extent, of food wastes left by visitors at park refuse sites. When these sites were closed, the bears showed significant decreases in body size, reproductive rate, and litter size.
Disruption of parent-offspring bonds:
Wildlife tourism also causes disruption to intra-specific relationships. Attendance by female harp seals to their pups declined when tourists were present and those females remaining with their pups spent significantly less time nursing and more time watching the tourists.
There is also a risk of the young not being recognized, and being more exposed to predator attacks. A similar concern has been expressed over whale watching, whale calves normally maintain constant body contact with their mothers but, when separated, can transfer their attachment to the side of the boat.
Increased vulnerability to predators and competitors:
The viewing of certain species by wildlife tourists makes the species more vulnerable to predators. Evidence of this phenomenon has been recorded in birds, reptiles and mammals. Problems have occurred in breeding colonies of pelicans .
Increased mortality, vanity hunts, and poaching:
Vanity hunts (also called canned hunts) tend to breed their animals for specific desirable features without regard for the genetic health of the population. Breeding efforts can incorporate elements of inbreeding as specific features are aggressively sought.
Inbreeding not only reinforces the presence of desirable features but brings with it the risk of inbreeding depression, which can reduce population fitness. Such operations also tend to feature other forms of animal abuse including inadequate housing and improper diet.
Poaching, similarly to vanity hunting, selects strongly for animal phenotypes deemed desirable by hunters. This “harvest selection” (sometimes termed “unnatural selection”) for specific human-desired features depletes natural populations of alleles which confer those desirable phenotypes.
Often, these features (large horns, large size, specific pelts) are not only desirable to humans, but play roles in survival within the animal’s natural habitat and role within their ecosystem.
By cutting down the number of animals bearing those desired phenotypes (and thus harboring the associated alleles), the amount of genetic material necessary for conferring those phenotypes upon later generations of the population is depleted (an example of genetic drift).
This selection changes population structure over time, and can lead to a decrease in the wild-condition fitness of the population as it is forced to adapt around hunting-condition pressures.
Impacts on tourists' perceptions and behaviours towards wildlife:
With the emergence of social media, many tourists have begun posting images online of themselves partaking in wildlife tourism experiences. These posts are not, in themselves, always negative, however they do often lead to increased visitation at wildlife tourism experiences, and can encourage behaviours that impact animal welfare.
These behaviours, such as being too close to wildlife, can impact the behaviour, health, location and mating of some species.
In addition, photos posted from animal tourism experiences can send unintentional message to viewers, particularly when a person is in the frame. For example, across a range of species, the presence of a human in a wildlife image can increase people's perceptions that the animal would make a good pet, or experiences negative welfare.
In response to these impacts and animal welfare concerns, Instagram and other social media sites now display warnings when viewers search for terms such as "#wildlifeselfie".
Positive impacts:
Habitat restoration by eco-lodges and other tourism operations:
Many owners of eco-accommodation or wildlife attractions preserve and restore native habitats on their properties.
In a large way, the tourists and travelers visiting the wildlife destinations contribute to the conservation and improvement of the conditions for the animals.
The flow of the people keeps the poachers at bay from killing the valuable animals.
The local tribes have a decent living as the tourism flourishes as it provides opportunities of improved livelihood.
Conservation breeding:
Many wildlife parks (e.g. David Fleay Wildlife Park, Gold Coast, Australia) and zoos breed rare and endangered species as a part of their activities, and release the progeny when possible into suitable habitat.
Financial donations:
Some wildlife tourism contributes monetary donations to conservation efforts e.g. Dreamworld, Gold Coast, has a display of Sumatran tigers, and money from visitor donations and from their 'tiger walk' goes to Sumatra to assist in-situ conservation of wild tigers.
Quality interpretation:
A good wildlife guide will impart a deeper understanding of the local wildlife and its ecological needs, which may give visitors a more informed base on which to subsequently modify their behaviour (e.g. not throw out plastic bags that may be eaten by turtles) and decide what political moves to support.
Culls and Population Maintenance:
In order to provide for less invasive wildlife tourism features and maintain ecosystem health, wild populations occasionally require maintenance measures. These measures can include the aforementioned conservation breeding programs to bolster population numbers, or culls to reduce population numbers.
Population reduction via culls occurs not only through the obvious means of direct (fatal) removal of individuals, but by implementing an additional selective pressure upon the population. This “harvest selection” can alter allelic frequency (a measure of genetic diversity, and thus related to genetic health) within a population, allowing the hunters to shape future generations by hunting the current.
Conservation Hunting/Harvest:
"Well monitored trophy hunting is inherently self-regulating, because modest off-take is required to ensure high trophy quality and thus marketability of the area and future seasons.
For example in Zimbabwe trophy hunting was largely responsible for the conversion of 27,000 km2 of livestock ranches to game ranching and a subsequent quadrupling of wildlife populations.
In South Africa there are approximately 5000 game ranches and 4000 mixed livestock/game ranches with a population of >1.7 million wild animals, presently 15-25% of ranches are used for wildlife production
Anti-poaching:
Bringing tourists regularly into some areas may make it more difficult for poachers of large animals or those who collect smaller species for the black market. Some examples of tourism having a positive effect towards anti-poaching, are that of non-consumptive wildlife tourism services which in turn provide for economic benefit of rural communities, and also by providing these same local communities with game meat harvested through tourist activities such as hunting.
Barrett and Arcese (1998) show that generating money sources from these non-consumptive practices of tourism generate a positive income effect and decrease game meat consumption while lowering illegal hunting (poaching)
Wildlife Tourism Australia Inc. held a workshop on this theme in June 2017: Illegal Wildlife Trafficking: Attacking on All Fronts. There is a report on discussions, plus links to further references, on http://www.wildlifetourism.org.au/blog/events/illegal-wildlife-trafficking-attacking-on-all-fronts.
Wildlife tourism, in its simplest sense, is interacting with wild animals in their natural habitat, either by actively (e.g. hunting/collection) or passively (e.g. watching/photography).
Wildlife tourism is an important part of the tourism industries in many countries including :
- many African and South American countries,
- Australia,
- India,
- Canada,
- Indonesia,
- Bangladesh,
- Malaysia,
- Sri Lanka
- and Maldives
According to United Nations World Tourism Organization, with an annual growth about 3%, 7% of world tourism industry relates to wildlife tourism. They also estimates that the growth is much higher in places like UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Wildlife tourism currently employs 22 million people worldwide directly or indirectly, and contributes more than $ 120 billion to global GDP.
As a multimillion-dollar international industry, wildlife tourism is often characterized by the offering of customized tour packages and safaris to allow close access to wildlife.
Description:
Wildlife tourism mostly encompasses non-consumptive interactions with wildlife, such as observing and photographing animals in their natural habitats. It also includes viewing of and interacting with captive animals in zoos or wildlife parks, and can also include animal-riding (e.g. elephant riding) and consumptive activities such as fishing and hunting, which will generally not come under the definition of ecotourism and may compromise animal welfare.
It has the recreational aspects of adventure travel, and usually supports the values of ecotourism and nature conservation programs.
Negative impacts:
Wildlife tourism can cause significant disturbances to animals in their natural habitats. Even among the tourism practices which boast minimal-to-no direct contact with wildlife, the growing interest in traveling to developing countries has created a boom in resort and hotel construction, particularly on rain forest and mangrove forest lands.
Wildlife viewing can scare away animals, disrupt their feeding and nesting sites, or acclimate them to the presence of people. In Kenya, for example, wildlife-observer disruption drives cheetahs off their reserves, increasing the risk of inbreeding and further endangering the species.
The practice of selling slots for tourists to participate in sanctioned hunt and culls, though seemingly innocent, can serve to impact populations negatively through indirect means. Though culls can and do serve a crucial role in the maintenance of several ecosystems’ health, the lucrative nature of these operations lends itself to mimicry by unofficial groups and/or groups which are not fully aware of the potential negative impact of their actions.
This is especially true of big-game and highly marketable species. Such unofficial organizations can promote the hunting or collecting of wildlife for profit without participating in or being sanctioned by wildlife management authorities while mimicking organized operations to fool unwary tourists. Though not sanctioned by any authority, the fact that these operations are funded by tourists and fueled by wildlife classifies such illicit hunting activity as “wildlife tourism”.
Direct impacts:
The impacts wildlife tourism will have on wildlife depends on the scale of tourist development and the behavior and resilience of wildlife to the presence of humans.
When tourists activities occur during sensitive times of the life cycle (for example, during nesting season), and when they involve close approaches to wildlife for the purpose of identification or photography, the potential for disturbance is high. Not all species appear to be disturbed by tourists even within heavily visited areas.
Disturbing breeding patterns:
The pressures of tourists searching out wildlife to photograph or hunt can adversely affect hunting and feeding patterns, and the breeding success of some species. Some may even have long-term implications for behavioral and ecological relationships.
For example, an increase in boat traffic has disturbed the feeding of giant otters in Manú National Park, Peru. Further disturbance to wildlife occurs when tourist guides dig up turtle nests and chase swimming jaguars, tapirs, and otters to give clients better viewing opportunities.
On the shores of Lake Kariba in Zimbabwe, the number of tourist boats and the noise generated has disrupted the feeding and drinking patterns of elephants and the black rhinoceros - it is feared that further increases in boat traffic will affect their reproductive success. The disturbance caused by human intervention may prevent species from their regular breeding and feeding activities.
To avoid this, tourism activities are often restricted in breeding time of some species. Eravikulam National Park is an important habitat of the Nilgiri tahrs in the Western Ghats.
In Rajamala, the tourism zone in the Eravikulam National Park, in breeding season of Nilgiri tahr, visitors are barred from entering the sanctuary for two months from February every year, is an example.
Disturbing feeding patterns:
Artificial feeding of wildlife by tourists can have severe consequences for social behavior patterns. Artificial feeding by tourists caused a breakdown of the territorial breeding system of land iguanas on the South Plaza in the Galápagos Islands.
Territories were abandoned in favor of sites where food could be begged from tourists, and this has had a negative effect on the breeding success of iguanas. Artificial feeding can also result in a complete loss of normal feeding behaviors. In the Galápagos Islands, overfeeding by tourists was so extreme that, when stopped, some animals were unable to locate their natural food sources.
Similarly, until the early 1970s, the diet of some grizzly bears in Yellowstone National Park consisted, to a large extent, of food wastes left by visitors at park refuse sites. When these sites were closed, the bears showed significant decreases in body size, reproductive rate, and litter size.
Disruption of parent-offspring bonds:
Wildlife tourism also causes disruption to intra-specific relationships. Attendance by female harp seals to their pups declined when tourists were present and those females remaining with their pups spent significantly less time nursing and more time watching the tourists.
There is also a risk of the young not being recognized, and being more exposed to predator attacks. A similar concern has been expressed over whale watching, whale calves normally maintain constant body contact with their mothers but, when separated, can transfer their attachment to the side of the boat.
Increased vulnerability to predators and competitors:
The viewing of certain species by wildlife tourists makes the species more vulnerable to predators. Evidence of this phenomenon has been recorded in birds, reptiles and mammals. Problems have occurred in breeding colonies of pelicans .
Increased mortality, vanity hunts, and poaching:
Vanity hunts (also called canned hunts) tend to breed their animals for specific desirable features without regard for the genetic health of the population. Breeding efforts can incorporate elements of inbreeding as specific features are aggressively sought.
Inbreeding not only reinforces the presence of desirable features but brings with it the risk of inbreeding depression, which can reduce population fitness. Such operations also tend to feature other forms of animal abuse including inadequate housing and improper diet.
Poaching, similarly to vanity hunting, selects strongly for animal phenotypes deemed desirable by hunters. This “harvest selection” (sometimes termed “unnatural selection”) for specific human-desired features depletes natural populations of alleles which confer those desirable phenotypes.
Often, these features (large horns, large size, specific pelts) are not only desirable to humans, but play roles in survival within the animal’s natural habitat and role within their ecosystem.
By cutting down the number of animals bearing those desired phenotypes (and thus harboring the associated alleles), the amount of genetic material necessary for conferring those phenotypes upon later generations of the population is depleted (an example of genetic drift).
This selection changes population structure over time, and can lead to a decrease in the wild-condition fitness of the population as it is forced to adapt around hunting-condition pressures.
Impacts on tourists' perceptions and behaviours towards wildlife:
With the emergence of social media, many tourists have begun posting images online of themselves partaking in wildlife tourism experiences. These posts are not, in themselves, always negative, however they do often lead to increased visitation at wildlife tourism experiences, and can encourage behaviours that impact animal welfare.
These behaviours, such as being too close to wildlife, can impact the behaviour, health, location and mating of some species.
In addition, photos posted from animal tourism experiences can send unintentional message to viewers, particularly when a person is in the frame. For example, across a range of species, the presence of a human in a wildlife image can increase people's perceptions that the animal would make a good pet, or experiences negative welfare.
In response to these impacts and animal welfare concerns, Instagram and other social media sites now display warnings when viewers search for terms such as "#wildlifeselfie".
Positive impacts:
Habitat restoration by eco-lodges and other tourism operations:
Many owners of eco-accommodation or wildlife attractions preserve and restore native habitats on their properties.
In a large way, the tourists and travelers visiting the wildlife destinations contribute to the conservation and improvement of the conditions for the animals.
The flow of the people keeps the poachers at bay from killing the valuable animals.
The local tribes have a decent living as the tourism flourishes as it provides opportunities of improved livelihood.
Conservation breeding:
Many wildlife parks (e.g. David Fleay Wildlife Park, Gold Coast, Australia) and zoos breed rare and endangered species as a part of their activities, and release the progeny when possible into suitable habitat.
Financial donations:
Some wildlife tourism contributes monetary donations to conservation efforts e.g. Dreamworld, Gold Coast, has a display of Sumatran tigers, and money from visitor donations and from their 'tiger walk' goes to Sumatra to assist in-situ conservation of wild tigers.
Quality interpretation:
A good wildlife guide will impart a deeper understanding of the local wildlife and its ecological needs, which may give visitors a more informed base on which to subsequently modify their behaviour (e.g. not throw out plastic bags that may be eaten by turtles) and decide what political moves to support.
Culls and Population Maintenance:
In order to provide for less invasive wildlife tourism features and maintain ecosystem health, wild populations occasionally require maintenance measures. These measures can include the aforementioned conservation breeding programs to bolster population numbers, or culls to reduce population numbers.
Population reduction via culls occurs not only through the obvious means of direct (fatal) removal of individuals, but by implementing an additional selective pressure upon the population. This “harvest selection” can alter allelic frequency (a measure of genetic diversity, and thus related to genetic health) within a population, allowing the hunters to shape future generations by hunting the current.
Conservation Hunting/Harvest:
"Well monitored trophy hunting is inherently self-regulating, because modest off-take is required to ensure high trophy quality and thus marketability of the area and future seasons.
For example in Zimbabwe trophy hunting was largely responsible for the conversion of 27,000 km2 of livestock ranches to game ranching and a subsequent quadrupling of wildlife populations.
In South Africa there are approximately 5000 game ranches and 4000 mixed livestock/game ranches with a population of >1.7 million wild animals, presently 15-25% of ranches are used for wildlife production
Anti-poaching:
Bringing tourists regularly into some areas may make it more difficult for poachers of large animals or those who collect smaller species for the black market. Some examples of tourism having a positive effect towards anti-poaching, are that of non-consumptive wildlife tourism services which in turn provide for economic benefit of rural communities, and also by providing these same local communities with game meat harvested through tourist activities such as hunting.
Barrett and Arcese (1998) show that generating money sources from these non-consumptive practices of tourism generate a positive income effect and decrease game meat consumption while lowering illegal hunting (poaching)
Wildlife Tourism Australia Inc. held a workshop on this theme in June 2017: Illegal Wildlife Trafficking: Attacking on All Fronts. There is a report on discussions, plus links to further references, on http://www.wildlifetourism.org.au/blog/events/illegal-wildlife-trafficking-attacking-on-all-fronts.
Medical Tourism
- YouTube Video:What Is Medical Tourism?
- YouTube Video: The Rise of Medical Tourism
- YouTube Video: Health care: America vs. the World
Medical tourism refers to people traveling abroad to obtain medical treatment. In the past, this usually referred to those who traveled from less-developed countries to major medical centers in highly developed countries for treatment unavailable at home.
However, in recent years it may equally refer to those from developed countries who travel to developing countries for lower-priced medical treatments. With differences between the medical agencies, such as the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) or the European Medicines Agency (EMA), etc., which decide whether a drug is approved in their country or region, or not, the motivation may be also for medical services unavailable or non-licensed in the home country.
Medical tourism most often is for surgeries (cosmetic or otherwise) or similar treatments, though people also travel for dental tourism or fertility tourism. People with rare conditions may travel to countries where the treatment is better understood. However, almost all types of health care are available, including psychiatry, alternative medicine, convalescent care, and even burial services.
Health tourism is a wider term for travel that focuses on medical treatments and the use of healthcare services. It covers a wide field of health-oriented tourism ranging from preventive and health-conductive treatment to rehabilitational and curative forms of travel. Wellness tourism is a related field.
History:
The first recorded instance of people travelling for medical treatment dates back thousands of years to when Greek pilgrims traveled from the eastern Mediterranean to a small area in the Saronic Gulf called Epidauria. This territory was the sanctuary of the healing god Asklepios.
Spa towns and sanitaria were early forms of medical tourism. In 18th-century Europe patients visited spas because they were places with supposedly health-giving mineral waters, treating diseases from gout to liver disorders and bronchitis.
Description:
Factors that have led to the increasing popularity of medical travel include the high cost of health care, long wait times for certain procedures, the ease and affordability of international travel, and improvements in both technology and standards of care in many countries.
The avoidance of waiting times is the leading factor for medical tourism from the UK, whereas in the US, the main reason is cheaper prices abroad. Furthermore, death rates even in the developed countries differ extremely, i.e. UK versus seven other leading countries, including the US.
Many surgical procedures performed in medical tourism destinations cost a fraction of the price they do in other countries. For example, in the United States, a liver transplant that may cost US$300,000, would generally cost about US$91,000 in Taiwan.
A large draw to medical travel is convenience and speed. Countries that operate public health-care systems often have long wait times for certain operations, for example, an estimated 782,936 Canadian patients spent an average waiting time of 9.4 weeks on medical waiting lists in 2005. Canada has also set waiting time benchmarks for non-urgent medical procedures, including a 26-week waiting period for a hip replacement and a 16-week wait for cataract surgery.
In developed countries such as the United States, medical tourism has large growth prospects and potentially destabilizing implications. A forecast by Deloitte Consulting published in August 2008 projected that medical tourism originating in the US could jump by a factor of ten over the next decade.
An estimated 750,000 Americans went abroad for health care in 2007, and the report estimated that 1.5 million would seek health care outside the US in 2008. The growth in medical tourism has the potential to cost US health care providers billions of dollars in lost revenue.
An authority at the Harvard Business School stated that "medical tourism is promoted much more heavily in the United Kingdom than in the United States".
Additionally, some patients in some First World countries are finding that insurance either does not cover orthopedic surgery (such as knee or hip replacement) or limits the choice of the facility, surgeon, or prosthetics to be used.
Popular medical travel worldwide destinations include:
Popular destinations for cosmetic surgery include:
According to the "Sociedad Boliviana de Cirugia Plastica y Reconstructiva", more than 70% of middle and upper-class women in the country have had some form of plastic surgery.
Other destination countries include Belgium, Poland, Slovakia and South Africa.
Some people travel for assisted pregnancy, such as in-vitro fertilization, or surrogacy, or freezing embryos for retro-production.
However, perceptions of medical tourism are not always positive. In places like the US, which has high standards of quality, medical tourism is viewed as risky. In some parts of the world, wider political issues can influence where medical tourists will choose to seek out health care.
Medical tourism providers have developed as intermediaries which unite potential medical tourists with surgeons, provider hospitals and other organizations. In some cases, surgeons from the United States have signed up with medical tourism providers to travel to Mexico to treat American patients.
The hope is that using an American surgeon may alleviate concerns about going outside the country, and persuade self-insured American employers to offer this cost-effective option to their workers as a way to save money while still provide high-quality care.
Companies that focus on medical value travel typically provide nurse case managers to assist patients with pre- and post-travel medical issues. They may also help provide resources for follow-up care upon the patient's return.
Circumvention tourism is also an area of medical tourism that has grown. Circumvention tourism is travel in order to access medical services that are legal in the destination country but illegal in the home country.
This can include travel for fertility treatments that are not yet approved in the home country, e.g., abortion and doctor-assisted suicide. Abortion tourism can be found most commonly in Europe, where travel between countries is relatively simple.
Poland, a European country with highly restrictive abortion laws, has one of the highest rates of circumvention tourism, as did Ireland before abortion was made legal in 2018. In Poland especially, it is estimated that each year nearly 7,000 women travel to the UK, where abortion services are free through the National Health Service.
There are also efforts being made by independent organizations and doctors, such as with Women on Waves, to help women circumvent laws in order to access medical services.
With Women on Waves, the organization uses a mobile clinic aboard a ship to provide medical abortions in international waters, where the law of the country whose flag is flown applies.
Dental tourism is travel for cheaper dentistry or oral surgery. The same porcelain veneer made in a lab in Sweden can be as much as 2500 AUD in Australia, but only 1200 AUD in India. The price difference here is not explainable by reference to the material cost.
International healthcare accreditation:
Main article: International healthcare accreditation
International healthcare accreditation is the process of certifying a level of quality for healthcare providers and programs across multiple countries. International healthcare accreditation organizations certify a wide range of healthcare programs such as hospitals, primary care centers, medical transport, and ambulatory care services.
There are a number of accreditation schemes available based in a number of different countries around the world.
The oldest international accrediting body is Accreditation Canada, formerly known as the Canadian Council on Health Services Accreditation, which accredited the Bermuda Hospital Board as soon as 1968. Since then, it has accredited hospitals and health service organizations in ten other countries.
In the United States, the accreditation group Joint Commission International (JCI) was formed in 1994 to provide international clients education and consulting services. Many international hospitals today see obtaining international accreditation as a way to attract American patients.
Joint Commission International is a relative of the Joint Commission in the United States. Both are US-style independent private sector not-for-profit organizations that develop nationally and internationally recognized procedures and standards to help improve patient care and safety. They work with hospitals to help them meet Joint Commission standards for patient care and then accredit those hospitals meeting the standards.
A British scheme, QHA Trent Accreditation, is an active independent holistic accreditation scheme, as well as GCR.org which monitors the success metrics and standards of almost 500,000 medical clinics worldwide.
The different international healthcare accreditation schemes vary in quality, size, cost, intent and the skill and intensity of their marketing. They also vary in terms of cost to hospitals and healthcare institutions making use of them.
Increasingly, some hospitals are looking towards dual international accreditation, perhaps having both JCI to cover potential US clientele, and Accreditation Canada or QHA Trent. As a result of competition between clinics for American medical tourists, there have been initiatives to rank hospitals based on patient-reported metrics.
Risks and criticism:
Medical tourism carries some risks that locally provided medical care either does not carry or carries to a much lesser degree.
Some countries, such as South Africa, or Thailand have very different infectious disease-related epidemiology to Europe and North America. Exposure to diseases without having built up natural immunity can be a hazard for weakened individuals, specifically with respect to gastrointestinal diseases (e.g. hepatitis A, amoebic dysentery, paratyphoid) which could weaken progress and expose the patient to mosquito-transmitted diseases, influenza, and tuberculosis.
However, because in poor tropical nations diseases run the gamut, doctors seem to be more open to the possibility of considering any infectious disease, including HIV, TB, and typhoid, while there are cases in the West where patients were consistently misdiagnosed for years because such diseases are perceived to be "rare" in the West.
The quality of post-operative care can also vary dramatically, depending on the hospital and country, and may be different from US or European standards. Also, traveling long distances soon after surgery can increase the risk of complications.
Long flights and decreased mobility associated with window seats can predispose one towards developing deep vein thrombosis and potentially a pulmonary embolism. Other vacation activities can be problematic as well — for example, scars may become darker and more noticeable if they are sunburned while healing.
Also, health facilities treating medical tourists may lack an adequate complaints policy to deal appropriately and fairly with complaints made by dissatisfied patients.
Differences in healthcare provider standards around the world have been recognised by the World Health Organization, and in 2004 it launched the World Alliance for Patient Safety. This body assists hospitals and government around the world in setting patient safety policy and practices that can become particularly relevant when providing medical tourism services.
Patients traveling to countries with less stringent surgical standards may be at higher risk for complications. If there are complications, the patient may need to stay in the foreign country for longer than planned or if they have returned home, will not have easy access to follow up care.
Patients sometimes travel to another country to obtain medical procedures that doctors in their home country refuse to perform because they believed that the risks of the procedure outweigh the benefits. Such patients may have difficulty getting insurance (whether public or private) to cover follow up medical costs should the feared complications indeed arise.
Legal issues:
Receiving medical care abroad may subject medical tourists to unfamiliar legal issues. The limited nature of litigation in various countries is a reason for accessibility of care overseas.
While some countries currently presenting themselves as attractive medical tourism destinations provide some form of legal remedies for medical malpractice, these legal avenues may be unappealing to the medical tourist. Should problems arise, patients might not be covered by adequate personal insurance or might be unable to seek compensation via malpractice lawsuits.
Hospitals and/or doctors in some countries may be unable to pay the financial damages awarded by a court to a patient who has sued them, owing to the hospital and/or the doctor not possessing appropriate insurance cover and/or medical indemnity.
Issues can also arise for patients who seek out services that are illegal in their home country. In this case, some countries have the jurisdiction to prosecute their citizen once they have returned home, or in extreme cases extraterritorially arrest and prosecute.
In Ireland, especially, in the 1980s-90s there were cases of young rape victims who were banned from traveling to Europe to get legal abortions. Ultimately, Ireland's Supreme Court overturned the ban; they and many other countries have since created "right to travel" amendments.
Ethical issues:
There can be major ethical issues around medical tourism. For example, the illegal purchase of organs and tissues for transplantation had been methodically documented and studied in countries such as China, Pakistan, Colombia and the Philippines.
The Declaration of Istanbul distinguishes between ethically problematic "transplant tourism" and "travel for transplantation".
Medical tourism may raise broader ethical issues for the countries in which it is promoted. For example, in India, some argue that a "policy of "medical tourism for the classes and health missions for the masses" will lead to a deepening of the inequities" already embedded in the health care system. In Thailand, in 2008 it was stated that, "Doctors in Thailand have become so busy with foreigners that Thai patients are having trouble getting care".
Medical tourism centered on new technologies, such as stem cell treatments, is often criticized on grounds of fraud, blatant lack of scientific rationale and patient safety.
However, when pioneering advanced technologies, such as providing "unproven" therapies to patients outside of regular clinical trials, it is often challenging to differentiate between acceptable medical innovation and unacceptable patient exploitation.
Medical volunteerism as tourism:
The field of the medical tourism (referring to volunteers who travel overseas to deliver medical care) has recently attracted negative criticism when compared to the alternative notion of sustainable capacities, i.e., work done in the context of long-term, locally-run, and foreign-supported infrastructures.
A preponderance of this criticism appears largely in scientific and peer-reviewed literature. Recently, media outlets with more general readerships have published such criticisms as well.
Employer-sponsored health care in the US:
Some US employers have begun exploring medical travel programs as a way to cut employee health care costs. Such proposals have raised stormy debates between employers and trade unions representing workers, with one union stating that it deplored the "shocking new approach" of offering employees overseas treatment in return for a share of the company's savings.
The unions also raise the issues of legal liability should something go wrong, and potential job losses in the US health care industry if treatment is outsourced.
Employers may offer incentives such as paying for air travel and waiving out-of-pocket expenses for care outside of the US. For example, in January 2008, Hannaford Bros., a supermarket chain based in Maine, began paying the entire medical bill for employees to travel to Singapore for hip and knee replacements, including travel for the patient and companion. Medical travel packages can integrate with all types of health insurance, including limited benefit plans, preferred provider organizations and high deductible health plans.
In 2000, Blue Shield of California began the United States' first cross-border health plan. Patients in California could travel to one of the three certified hospitals in Mexico for treatment under California Blue Shield.
In 2007, a subsidiary of BlueCross BlueShield of South Carolina, Companion Global Healthcare, teamed up with hospitals in Thailand, Singapore, Turkey, Ireland, Costa Rica and India. A 2008 article in Fast Company discusses the globalization of healthcare and describes how various players in the US healthcare market have begun to explore it.
Impact of COVID-19 on Medical Tourism:
The growth of Global Medical Tourism in the last decade has influenced overall growth of health care sector. Due to the multidimensional impact of the Pandemic COVID-19 in the form of a global healthcare crisis, falling global economy, restricted international travel, the medical tourism industry is undergoing a substantial decline.
The CDC has listed various levels of different destinations or countries that are ranked from 1 to 3, with 1 and 2 considered safe to travel. A destination ranked level-3 is considered a warning not to travel to that area.
According to the latest IMTJ Global Medical Travel and Tourism, it is expected that medical tourism industry will be affected until 2021.
COVID-19 vaccine tourism:
In the later half of February 2021, it was reported that wealthy and influential people from Canada and European countries flew to the United Arab Emirates to secure early access to the COVID-19 vaccine. The UAE has been promoting Dubai as a vaccine holiday hub for the wealthy, who can pay large sums of money to get inoculated before they become eligible.
In January 2021, Canadian snowbirds travelled to the United States (specifically Florida and Arizona) via air charter for quicker access to the COVID-19 vaccine.
Destinations:
Africa and the Middle East:
Iran:
In 2012, 30,000 people came to Iran to receive medical treatment. In 2015, it is estimated that between 150,000 and 200,000 health tourists came to Iran, and this figure is expected to rise to 500,000 a year. Iran medical services are low cost in the fields of cosmetic and plastic surgeries, infertility treatment and dentistry services.
According to a report in 2016 by Big Market Research, the global medical tourism market is expected to reach $143 billion by 2022. It was reported in May that the number of tourists traveling to Iran for advanced medical services has grown by 40% over past five years.
Israel:
See also: Medical tourism in Israel
Israel is a popular destination for medical tourism. Many medical tourists to Israel come from Europe, particularly the former Soviet Union, as well as the United States, Australia, Cyprus, and South Africa.
Medical tourists come to Israel for a variety of surgical procedures and therapies, including bone marrow transplants, heart surgery, and catheterization, oncological and neurological treatments, orthopedic procedures, car accident rehabilitation, and in-vitro fertilization.
Israel's popularity as a destination for medical tourism stems from its status as a developed country with a high-quality level of medical care, while at the same time having lower medical costs than many other developed countries.
Israel is particularly popular as a destination for bone marrow transplants among Cypriots, as the procedure is not available in Cyprus, and for orthopedic procedures among Americans, as the cost of orthopedic procedures in Israel is about half that of in the United States. Israel is a particularly popular destination for people seeking IVF treatments.
Medical tourists in Israel use both public and private hospitals, and all major Israeli hospitals offer medical tourism packages which typically cost far less than comparable procedures than in facilities elsewhere with a similarly high standard of care.
In 2014, it was estimated that roughly 50,000 medical tourists came to Israel annually. There are reports that these medical tourists obtain preferential treatment, to the detriment of local patients. In addition, some people come to Israel to visit health resorts at the Dead Sea and on Lake Kinneret.
Jordan:
Jordan, through their Private Hospitals Association, attracted 250,000 international patients accompanied by more than 500,000 companions in 2012, with total revenues exceeding 1B US$. Jordan won the Medical Destination of the year award in 2014 in the IMTJ Medical Travel Awards.
South Africa:
South Africa is the first country in Africa to emerge as a medical tourism destination.
Tunisia:
On the African scale, Tunisia ranks second in the field of health tourism. It is also named the world's second best thalassotherapy destination, behind France.
United Arab Emirates:
United Arab Emirates, especially Dubai, Abu Dhabi, Ras Al Khaimah is a popular destination for medical tourism. The Dubai Health authority has been spearheading medical tourism into UAE, especially Dubai. However, hospitals providing medical tourism are spread all over the seven emirates.
UAE has the distinction of having the maximum number of JCI accredited hospitals (under various heads). UAE has inbound medical tourism as well as people going out for medical treatment:
The expats prefer to go back to their home countries for treatment.
Americas:
Brazil:
In Brazil, Albert Einstein Hospital in São Paulo was the first JCI-accredited facility outside of the US, and more than a dozen Brazilian medical facilities have since been similarly accredited.
Canada:
In comparison to US health costs, patients can save 30 to 60 percent on health costs in Canada.
In the early 1990s, Americans illegally using counterfeit, borrowed, or fraudulently obtained Canadian health insurance cards to obtain free healthcare in Canada became a serious issue due to the high costs it imposed.
Costa Rica:
In Costa Rica, there are two Joint Commission International accredited (JCI) hospitals. Both are in San Jose, Costa Rica. When the World Health Organization (WHO) ranked the world's health systems in the year 2000, Costa Rica was ranked as no. 26, which was higher than the US, and together with Dominica it dominated the list amongst the Central American countries.
The Deloitte Center for Health Solutions in 2008 reported a cost savings average of between 30 and 70 percent of US prices. In 2019 a knee operation in Clinica Biblica which would have cost around $44,000 in the USA cost $12,200.
Cayman Islands:
Main article: Health City Cayman Islands
Cuba:
Main article: Health care in Cuba § Health tourism and pharmaceutics
Mexico:
Mexico has 98 hospitals accredited by the country's Federal Health Ministry and seven hospitals which are JCI-accredited. Mexico is most reputed for advanced care in dentistry and cosmetic surgery.
In recent years, Los Algodones, Baja California, a settlement of fewer than 6,000 people located on the US border near Yuma, Arizona, has become a major destination for Americans and Canadians seeking dental services. Roughly 600 dentists practice in the community, catering mainly to tourists, leading the community to be nicknamed "Molar City".
United States:
Main article: Health care in the United States
A 2015 report from the United States International Trade Commission found that between 150,000 and 320,000 medical tourists from the United States were traveling worldwide for the purpose of receiving in-patient medical care.
Some have estimated that 750,000 American medical tourists traveled from the United States to other countries in 2007 (up from 500,000 in 2006), according to the McKinsey report, based on:
The availability of advanced medical technology and sophisticated training of physicians are cited as driving motivators for growth in foreigners traveling to the US for medical care, whereas the low costs for hospital stays and major/complex procedures at Western-accredited medical facilities abroad are cited as major motivators for American travelers.
Also, the decline in value of the US dollar between 2007 and 2013 used to offer additional incentives for foreign travel to the US, although cost differences between the US and many locations in Asia are larger than any currency fluctuations.
Several major medical centers and teaching hospitals offer international patient centers that cater to patients from foreign countries who seek medical treatment in the US. Many of these organizations offer service coordinators to assist international patients with arrangements for medical care, accommodations, finances and transportation including air ambulance services.
Asia and the Pacific Islands:
China:
Main article: Healthcare in China
Ctrip's 2016 Online Medical Tourism Report indicates that the number of travelers who enroll in the oversea medical tourism through its platform increased fivefold over the previous year, and more than 500,000 Chinese visitors are expected to go on medical tourism.
The top ten medical tourism destinations by Chinese are:
Regular health checks made up the majority share of Chinese medical tourism in 2016, representing over 50% of all medical tourism trips for tourists originating in China.
Hong Kong:
All twelve of Hong Kong's private hospitals have been surveyed and accredited by the UK's Trent Accreditation Scheme since early 2001.
India:
Main article: Medical tourism in India
Medical tourism is a growing sector in India. India is becoming the 2nd medical tourism destination after Thailand.
Gurgaon is India's largest Medical Tourism hub, followed by Chennai, which is regarded as "India's Health City" as it attracts 45% of health tourists visiting India and 40% of domestic health tourists.
India's medical tourism sector was expected to experience an annual growth rate of 30% from 2012, making it a $2 billion industry by 2015.
In August 2019, the Indian government made it easier for foreigners to receive medical treatment without necessarily applying for a medical visa. These initiatives by Indian government will help Medical Tourism market to reach around $9 Billion in 2020.
Furthermore, the major reason for foreign tourist to choose India is because it has 40 hospitals accredited by the US Joint Commission.
As medical treatment costs in the developed world balloon—with the United States leading the way—more and more Westerners are finding the prospect of international travel for medical care increasingly appealing. An estimated 150,000 of these travel to India for low-priced healthcare procedures every year. India is increasingly becoming popular with Africans seeking medical treatment overseas.
Treatments are approved by the World Health Organization (WHO) and the US Food and Drug Administration.
The Government has also started various initiative that can be of great push to help international patients get the right kind of treatment at affordable prices. As per the studies the rise in Medical tourism in India will be on an increasing trajectory.
Malaysia:
Main article: Medical tourism in Malaysia
The majority of the foreign patients seeking medical treatments in Malaysia are from Indonesia, with smaller numbers of foreign patients coming from India, Singapore, Japan, Australia, Europe, the US and the Middle East.
In 2008, Indonesians comprised 75% of all foreign patients receiving care in Malaysia; Europeans, 3%; Japanese, 3%; Singaporeans, 1% and citizens from Middle Eastern countries, 1%.
By 2011, Indonesians comprised 57% of all foreign patients in Malaysia as the number of patients of other nationalities grew.
Health insurance companies in Singapore have recently permitted their policyholders to be treated in Malaysia where services are cheaper than in Singapore.
New Zealand:
Main article: Health care in New Zealand
In 2008, it was estimated that on average New Zealand's surgical costs are around 15 to 20% the cost of the same surgical procedure in the USA.
Pakistan:
Main article: Medical tourism in Pakistan
Pakistan has four Joint Commission International (JCI) accredited hospitals in Pakistan. Mostly people travel for treatments in Pakistan from:
Singapore:
Singapore has a dozen hospitals and health centers with JCI accreditation.[107] In 2013 medical expenditure generated from medical tourists, mostly from more complex medical procedures, such as heart surgery, was S$832 million, a decline of 25 percent from 2012's S$1.11 billion, as the hospitals faced more competition from neighbouring countries for less complex work.
Thailand:
Main articles:
Foreigners seeking treatment for everything from open-heart surgery to fertility treatments have made Thailand and its accredited hospitals a popular destination for medical tourism, attracting an estimated 2.81 million patients in 2015, up 10.2 percent.
In 2013, medical tourists spent as much as US$4.7 billion, according to government statistics.
As of 2019, with 64 accredited hospitals, Thailand is currently among the top 10 medical tourism destinations in the world. In 2017, Thailand registered 3.3 million visits by foreigners seeking specialised medical treatment. In 2018, this number grew to 3.5 million.
Europe:
Even within Europe, although therapy protocols might be approved by the European Medicines Agency (EMA), several countries have their own review organizations in order to evaluate whether the same therapy protocol would be "cost-effective", so that patients face differences in the therapy protocols, particularly in the access of these drugs, which might be partially explained by the financial strength of the particular Health System.
In 2006, it was ruled that under the conditions of the E112 European health scheme, UK health authorities had to pay the bill if one of their patients could establish urgent medical reasons for seeking quicker treatment in another European union country.
The European directive on the application of patients' rights to cross-border healthcare was agreed in 2011.
An online survey of EU migrants, mostly from Poland, Hungary and Romania, in the UK by the Centre for Population Change in 2019 showed that 46% of them preferred the health system in their country of origin. Only 36% preferred NHS medical treatment, and fewer among those from Western Europe.
Azerbaijan:
Azerbaijan is a target of health tourists from Iran, Turkey, Georgia and Russia. The Bona Dea International Hospital in Baku was built in 2018 to attract international patients, and has staff from various European countries.[115]
Croatia:
Croatia has some claims to be the oldest health tourism destination in Europe, as the Hygienic Association of Hvar was founded in 1868.
Finland:
On December 9, 2013, the City of Helsinki decided that all minors under the age of 18 and all pregnant mothers living in Helsinki without a valid visa or residence permit are granted the right to the same health care and at the same price as all citizens of the city. This service will be available sometime early year 2014.
Volunteer doctors of Global Clinic have tried to help these people, for whom only acute care has been available. This means that the Finnish health care system is open for all people coming outside of the European Union.
France:
British NHS patients have been offered treatment in France to reduce waiting lists for hip, knee and cataract surgery since 2002. France is a popular tourist destination but also ranked the world's leading health care system by the World Health Organization. European Court of Justice said that National Health Service (England) has to pay back British patients.
The number of patients is growing, and in 2016, France scored # 7 in the Medical Tourism Index.
Germany:
In 2017 there were said to be around 250,000 foreign patients who brought more than 1.2 billion euros income to German hospitals. Some were visitors who fell ill unexpectedly, but it is estimated that more than 40 percent came for planned treatment, the majority from Poland, the Netherlands or France.
There have long been medical tourists from the Middle East. University hospitals and the large municipal clinics, such as University Hospital Freiburg or Vivantes in Berlin, are the most popular destinations. Some require payment in full before they start treatment.
The Hallwang Clinic GmbH is said to be the most high-profile clinic in the European private cancer industry, centred in Germany, which attracts patients from the US, the UK, Australia and the Middle East, offering a variety of different treatments, some of which do not appear to be evidence based; the clinic has been accused of selling false hope.
Greece:
Greece starts playing a major role in the field of medical tourism worldwide; while it has always been a notable tourist destination, improvements in healthcare services and medical professionals' training account expanding Greece as a destination for international patients.
Hungary:
During the Goulash Communism era, Germans and Austrian tourists in Hungary also began visiting dentists.
As of 2015 Mosonmagyaróvár had about 350 dental clinics, more per capita than anywhere else on Earth. Prices for dental procedures are one third to one half of the price in Vienna, Austria, 60 km (37 mi) away, and one quarter that of Switzerland or Denmark.
An Austrian can be treated during a day trip, or also have a vacation in the area for the price of one or two nights in a Vienna hotel.
Lithuania:
Health Tourism Lithuania, a booking agent, was established in 2018, focusing on the Scandinavian market, but in 2019 in response to longer waiting lists in the NHS noticed an increase in enquiries about hip replacements, in addition to the existing interest in cosmetic surgery and dentistry from Britons.
A hip replacement costs £3,340, about a third of the price of a commercial procedure in the UK.
Russia:
In his address to the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation dated March 1, 2018, Russian President Vladimir Putin stressed the need to develop health care and export services in the field of medicine and tourism.
In accordance with the decree of the President of the Russian Federation of May 7, 2018 No. 204 "on national goals and strategic objectives of the development of the Russian Federation for the period up to 2024" the volume of exports of medical services by 2024 will have to be $1 billion per year.
RAMT in order to implement the Decree of the President of the Russian Federation of 7 May 2018 No. 204, the Federal non-profit organization Russian Association of Medical Tourism was established.
Serbia:
Serbia has a variety of clinics catering to medical tourists in areas of cosmetic surgery, dental care, fertility treatment and weight loss procedures. The country is also a major international hub for gender reassignment surgery.
Turkey:
The cost of medical recourses in Turkey is quite affordable compared to Western European countries. Therefore, thousands of people each year travel to Turkey for their medical treatments. Turkey is especially becoming a hub for hair transplant surgery. Almost 178,000 tourists visited for health purposes in the first six months of 2018. 67% used private hospital, 24% public hospitals and 9% university hospitals.
The Regulation on International Health Tourism and Tourist Health came into force on 13 July 2017. It only applies to those coming specifically for treatment. USHAŞ was established in 2019 by Turkish Ministry of Health to promote and regulate medical tourism inTurkey.
United Kingdom:
Both the publicly owned National Health Service and private hospitals attracts medical tourism. Many private hospitals and clinics in the United Kingdom are medical tourism destinations.
UK private hospitals have mandatory registration with the UK's watchdog, the Care Quality Commission). The vast majority of medical tourism in the UK is attracted to London where there are 25 private hospitals and clinics and 12 private patient units run by NHS hospital trusts.
In 2017 there was a 3% decline in the £1.55 billion market because of fewer clients from the Middle East. Overseas patients coming to London are particularly likely to be seeking complex cancer, neurosciences, cardiovascular and paediatric services supported by strong clinical expertise reflected by the leading teaching hospitals based in the UK.
Income for NHS providers rose by 9% in 2018–9, pushing the Royal Marsden nearer the 50% statutory limit.
Abuse in the UK: It is alleged that health tourists in the UK often target the NHS for its free-at-the-point-of-care treatment, allegedly costing the NHS up to £200 million. A study in 2013 concluded that the UK was a net exporter of medical tourists, with 63,000 UK residents travelling abroad for treatment and about 52,000 patients getting treatment in UK.
Medical tourists treated as private patients by NHS trusts are more profitable than UK private patients, yielding close to a quarter of the revenue from only seven percent of volume of cases. UK dental patients largely go to Hungary and Poland. Fertility tourists mostly travel to Eastern Europe, Cyprus and Spain.
In the summer of 2015 immigration officers from the Border Force were stationed in St George's University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust to train staff to identify "potentially chargeable patients".
In October 2016 the trust announced that it planned to require photo identity papers or proof of their right to remain in the UK such as asylum status or a visa for pregnant women. Those not able to provide satisfactory documents would be sent to the trust's overseas patient team "for specialist document screening, in liaison with the UK Border Agency and the Home Office."
It was estimated that £4.6 million a year was spent on care for ineligible patients. A pilot scheme to check whether patients were entitled to free NHS care in 18 NHS trusts, 11 in London, for two months in 2017 asked 8,894 people for two forms of ID prior to non-emergency care. Only 50 were not eligible for free NHS treatment. Campaigners claimed this was "part of the Government's hostile environment policy", and that in Newham hospital "you will see huge signs saying you may not be eligible for free NHS treatment".
The bills issued to patients thought to be ineligible far exceed the sums actually collected. Most trusts do not have dedicated staff for the task. Ineligible patients generally live overseas, many have no money, and some demonstrate that they were eligible for free treatment after invoices had been issued.
See also:
However, in recent years it may equally refer to those from developed countries who travel to developing countries for lower-priced medical treatments. With differences between the medical agencies, such as the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) or the European Medicines Agency (EMA), etc., which decide whether a drug is approved in their country or region, or not, the motivation may be also for medical services unavailable or non-licensed in the home country.
Medical tourism most often is for surgeries (cosmetic or otherwise) or similar treatments, though people also travel for dental tourism or fertility tourism. People with rare conditions may travel to countries where the treatment is better understood. However, almost all types of health care are available, including psychiatry, alternative medicine, convalescent care, and even burial services.
Health tourism is a wider term for travel that focuses on medical treatments and the use of healthcare services. It covers a wide field of health-oriented tourism ranging from preventive and health-conductive treatment to rehabilitational and curative forms of travel. Wellness tourism is a related field.
History:
The first recorded instance of people travelling for medical treatment dates back thousands of years to when Greek pilgrims traveled from the eastern Mediterranean to a small area in the Saronic Gulf called Epidauria. This territory was the sanctuary of the healing god Asklepios.
Spa towns and sanitaria were early forms of medical tourism. In 18th-century Europe patients visited spas because they were places with supposedly health-giving mineral waters, treating diseases from gout to liver disorders and bronchitis.
Description:
Factors that have led to the increasing popularity of medical travel include the high cost of health care, long wait times for certain procedures, the ease and affordability of international travel, and improvements in both technology and standards of care in many countries.
The avoidance of waiting times is the leading factor for medical tourism from the UK, whereas in the US, the main reason is cheaper prices abroad. Furthermore, death rates even in the developed countries differ extremely, i.e. UK versus seven other leading countries, including the US.
Many surgical procedures performed in medical tourism destinations cost a fraction of the price they do in other countries. For example, in the United States, a liver transplant that may cost US$300,000, would generally cost about US$91,000 in Taiwan.
A large draw to medical travel is convenience and speed. Countries that operate public health-care systems often have long wait times for certain operations, for example, an estimated 782,936 Canadian patients spent an average waiting time of 9.4 weeks on medical waiting lists in 2005. Canada has also set waiting time benchmarks for non-urgent medical procedures, including a 26-week waiting period for a hip replacement and a 16-week wait for cataract surgery.
In developed countries such as the United States, medical tourism has large growth prospects and potentially destabilizing implications. A forecast by Deloitte Consulting published in August 2008 projected that medical tourism originating in the US could jump by a factor of ten over the next decade.
An estimated 750,000 Americans went abroad for health care in 2007, and the report estimated that 1.5 million would seek health care outside the US in 2008. The growth in medical tourism has the potential to cost US health care providers billions of dollars in lost revenue.
An authority at the Harvard Business School stated that "medical tourism is promoted much more heavily in the United Kingdom than in the United States".
Additionally, some patients in some First World countries are finding that insurance either does not cover orthopedic surgery (such as knee or hip replacement) or limits the choice of the facility, surgeon, or prosthetics to be used.
Popular medical travel worldwide destinations include:
- Canada,
- Cuba,
- Costa Rica,
- Ecuador,
- India,
- Israel,
- Jordan,
- Malaysia,
- Mexico,
- Singapore,
- South Korea,
- Taiwan,
- Thailand,
- Turkey,
- United States.
Popular destinations for cosmetic surgery include:
- Argentina,
- Bolivia,
- Brazil,
- Colombia,
- Costa Rica,
- Cuba,
- Ecuador,
- Mexico,
- Turkey,
- Thailand
- and Ukraine.
According to the "Sociedad Boliviana de Cirugia Plastica y Reconstructiva", more than 70% of middle and upper-class women in the country have had some form of plastic surgery.
Other destination countries include Belgium, Poland, Slovakia and South Africa.
Some people travel for assisted pregnancy, such as in-vitro fertilization, or surrogacy, or freezing embryos for retro-production.
However, perceptions of medical tourism are not always positive. In places like the US, which has high standards of quality, medical tourism is viewed as risky. In some parts of the world, wider political issues can influence where medical tourists will choose to seek out health care.
Medical tourism providers have developed as intermediaries which unite potential medical tourists with surgeons, provider hospitals and other organizations. In some cases, surgeons from the United States have signed up with medical tourism providers to travel to Mexico to treat American patients.
The hope is that using an American surgeon may alleviate concerns about going outside the country, and persuade self-insured American employers to offer this cost-effective option to their workers as a way to save money while still provide high-quality care.
Companies that focus on medical value travel typically provide nurse case managers to assist patients with pre- and post-travel medical issues. They may also help provide resources for follow-up care upon the patient's return.
Circumvention tourism is also an area of medical tourism that has grown. Circumvention tourism is travel in order to access medical services that are legal in the destination country but illegal in the home country.
This can include travel for fertility treatments that are not yet approved in the home country, e.g., abortion and doctor-assisted suicide. Abortion tourism can be found most commonly in Europe, where travel between countries is relatively simple.
Poland, a European country with highly restrictive abortion laws, has one of the highest rates of circumvention tourism, as did Ireland before abortion was made legal in 2018. In Poland especially, it is estimated that each year nearly 7,000 women travel to the UK, where abortion services are free through the National Health Service.
There are also efforts being made by independent organizations and doctors, such as with Women on Waves, to help women circumvent laws in order to access medical services.
With Women on Waves, the organization uses a mobile clinic aboard a ship to provide medical abortions in international waters, where the law of the country whose flag is flown applies.
Dental tourism is travel for cheaper dentistry or oral surgery. The same porcelain veneer made in a lab in Sweden can be as much as 2500 AUD in Australia, but only 1200 AUD in India. The price difference here is not explainable by reference to the material cost.
International healthcare accreditation:
Main article: International healthcare accreditation
International healthcare accreditation is the process of certifying a level of quality for healthcare providers and programs across multiple countries. International healthcare accreditation organizations certify a wide range of healthcare programs such as hospitals, primary care centers, medical transport, and ambulatory care services.
There are a number of accreditation schemes available based in a number of different countries around the world.
The oldest international accrediting body is Accreditation Canada, formerly known as the Canadian Council on Health Services Accreditation, which accredited the Bermuda Hospital Board as soon as 1968. Since then, it has accredited hospitals and health service organizations in ten other countries.
In the United States, the accreditation group Joint Commission International (JCI) was formed in 1994 to provide international clients education and consulting services. Many international hospitals today see obtaining international accreditation as a way to attract American patients.
Joint Commission International is a relative of the Joint Commission in the United States. Both are US-style independent private sector not-for-profit organizations that develop nationally and internationally recognized procedures and standards to help improve patient care and safety. They work with hospitals to help them meet Joint Commission standards for patient care and then accredit those hospitals meeting the standards.
A British scheme, QHA Trent Accreditation, is an active independent holistic accreditation scheme, as well as GCR.org which monitors the success metrics and standards of almost 500,000 medical clinics worldwide.
The different international healthcare accreditation schemes vary in quality, size, cost, intent and the skill and intensity of their marketing. They also vary in terms of cost to hospitals and healthcare institutions making use of them.
Increasingly, some hospitals are looking towards dual international accreditation, perhaps having both JCI to cover potential US clientele, and Accreditation Canada or QHA Trent. As a result of competition between clinics for American medical tourists, there have been initiatives to rank hospitals based on patient-reported metrics.
Risks and criticism:
Medical tourism carries some risks that locally provided medical care either does not carry or carries to a much lesser degree.
Some countries, such as South Africa, or Thailand have very different infectious disease-related epidemiology to Europe and North America. Exposure to diseases without having built up natural immunity can be a hazard for weakened individuals, specifically with respect to gastrointestinal diseases (e.g. hepatitis A, amoebic dysentery, paratyphoid) which could weaken progress and expose the patient to mosquito-transmitted diseases, influenza, and tuberculosis.
However, because in poor tropical nations diseases run the gamut, doctors seem to be more open to the possibility of considering any infectious disease, including HIV, TB, and typhoid, while there are cases in the West where patients were consistently misdiagnosed for years because such diseases are perceived to be "rare" in the West.
The quality of post-operative care can also vary dramatically, depending on the hospital and country, and may be different from US or European standards. Also, traveling long distances soon after surgery can increase the risk of complications.
Long flights and decreased mobility associated with window seats can predispose one towards developing deep vein thrombosis and potentially a pulmonary embolism. Other vacation activities can be problematic as well — for example, scars may become darker and more noticeable if they are sunburned while healing.
Also, health facilities treating medical tourists may lack an adequate complaints policy to deal appropriately and fairly with complaints made by dissatisfied patients.
Differences in healthcare provider standards around the world have been recognised by the World Health Organization, and in 2004 it launched the World Alliance for Patient Safety. This body assists hospitals and government around the world in setting patient safety policy and practices that can become particularly relevant when providing medical tourism services.
Patients traveling to countries with less stringent surgical standards may be at higher risk for complications. If there are complications, the patient may need to stay in the foreign country for longer than planned or if they have returned home, will not have easy access to follow up care.
Patients sometimes travel to another country to obtain medical procedures that doctors in their home country refuse to perform because they believed that the risks of the procedure outweigh the benefits. Such patients may have difficulty getting insurance (whether public or private) to cover follow up medical costs should the feared complications indeed arise.
Legal issues:
Receiving medical care abroad may subject medical tourists to unfamiliar legal issues. The limited nature of litigation in various countries is a reason for accessibility of care overseas.
While some countries currently presenting themselves as attractive medical tourism destinations provide some form of legal remedies for medical malpractice, these legal avenues may be unappealing to the medical tourist. Should problems arise, patients might not be covered by adequate personal insurance or might be unable to seek compensation via malpractice lawsuits.
Hospitals and/or doctors in some countries may be unable to pay the financial damages awarded by a court to a patient who has sued them, owing to the hospital and/or the doctor not possessing appropriate insurance cover and/or medical indemnity.
Issues can also arise for patients who seek out services that are illegal in their home country. In this case, some countries have the jurisdiction to prosecute their citizen once they have returned home, or in extreme cases extraterritorially arrest and prosecute.
In Ireland, especially, in the 1980s-90s there were cases of young rape victims who were banned from traveling to Europe to get legal abortions. Ultimately, Ireland's Supreme Court overturned the ban; they and many other countries have since created "right to travel" amendments.
Ethical issues:
There can be major ethical issues around medical tourism. For example, the illegal purchase of organs and tissues for transplantation had been methodically documented and studied in countries such as China, Pakistan, Colombia and the Philippines.
The Declaration of Istanbul distinguishes between ethically problematic "transplant tourism" and "travel for transplantation".
Medical tourism may raise broader ethical issues for the countries in which it is promoted. For example, in India, some argue that a "policy of "medical tourism for the classes and health missions for the masses" will lead to a deepening of the inequities" already embedded in the health care system. In Thailand, in 2008 it was stated that, "Doctors in Thailand have become so busy with foreigners that Thai patients are having trouble getting care".
Medical tourism centered on new technologies, such as stem cell treatments, is often criticized on grounds of fraud, blatant lack of scientific rationale and patient safety.
However, when pioneering advanced technologies, such as providing "unproven" therapies to patients outside of regular clinical trials, it is often challenging to differentiate between acceptable medical innovation and unacceptable patient exploitation.
Medical volunteerism as tourism:
The field of the medical tourism (referring to volunteers who travel overseas to deliver medical care) has recently attracted negative criticism when compared to the alternative notion of sustainable capacities, i.e., work done in the context of long-term, locally-run, and foreign-supported infrastructures.
A preponderance of this criticism appears largely in scientific and peer-reviewed literature. Recently, media outlets with more general readerships have published such criticisms as well.
Employer-sponsored health care in the US:
Some US employers have begun exploring medical travel programs as a way to cut employee health care costs. Such proposals have raised stormy debates between employers and trade unions representing workers, with one union stating that it deplored the "shocking new approach" of offering employees overseas treatment in return for a share of the company's savings.
The unions also raise the issues of legal liability should something go wrong, and potential job losses in the US health care industry if treatment is outsourced.
Employers may offer incentives such as paying for air travel and waiving out-of-pocket expenses for care outside of the US. For example, in January 2008, Hannaford Bros., a supermarket chain based in Maine, began paying the entire medical bill for employees to travel to Singapore for hip and knee replacements, including travel for the patient and companion. Medical travel packages can integrate with all types of health insurance, including limited benefit plans, preferred provider organizations and high deductible health plans.
In 2000, Blue Shield of California began the United States' first cross-border health plan. Patients in California could travel to one of the three certified hospitals in Mexico for treatment under California Blue Shield.
In 2007, a subsidiary of BlueCross BlueShield of South Carolina, Companion Global Healthcare, teamed up with hospitals in Thailand, Singapore, Turkey, Ireland, Costa Rica and India. A 2008 article in Fast Company discusses the globalization of healthcare and describes how various players in the US healthcare market have begun to explore it.
Impact of COVID-19 on Medical Tourism:
The growth of Global Medical Tourism in the last decade has influenced overall growth of health care sector. Due to the multidimensional impact of the Pandemic COVID-19 in the form of a global healthcare crisis, falling global economy, restricted international travel, the medical tourism industry is undergoing a substantial decline.
The CDC has listed various levels of different destinations or countries that are ranked from 1 to 3, with 1 and 2 considered safe to travel. A destination ranked level-3 is considered a warning not to travel to that area.
According to the latest IMTJ Global Medical Travel and Tourism, it is expected that medical tourism industry will be affected until 2021.
COVID-19 vaccine tourism:
In the later half of February 2021, it was reported that wealthy and influential people from Canada and European countries flew to the United Arab Emirates to secure early access to the COVID-19 vaccine. The UAE has been promoting Dubai as a vaccine holiday hub for the wealthy, who can pay large sums of money to get inoculated before they become eligible.
In January 2021, Canadian snowbirds travelled to the United States (specifically Florida and Arizona) via air charter for quicker access to the COVID-19 vaccine.
Destinations:
Africa and the Middle East:
Iran:
In 2012, 30,000 people came to Iran to receive medical treatment. In 2015, it is estimated that between 150,000 and 200,000 health tourists came to Iran, and this figure is expected to rise to 500,000 a year. Iran medical services are low cost in the fields of cosmetic and plastic surgeries, infertility treatment and dentistry services.
According to a report in 2016 by Big Market Research, the global medical tourism market is expected to reach $143 billion by 2022. It was reported in May that the number of tourists traveling to Iran for advanced medical services has grown by 40% over past five years.
Israel:
See also: Medical tourism in Israel
Israel is a popular destination for medical tourism. Many medical tourists to Israel come from Europe, particularly the former Soviet Union, as well as the United States, Australia, Cyprus, and South Africa.
Medical tourists come to Israel for a variety of surgical procedures and therapies, including bone marrow transplants, heart surgery, and catheterization, oncological and neurological treatments, orthopedic procedures, car accident rehabilitation, and in-vitro fertilization.
Israel's popularity as a destination for medical tourism stems from its status as a developed country with a high-quality level of medical care, while at the same time having lower medical costs than many other developed countries.
Israel is particularly popular as a destination for bone marrow transplants among Cypriots, as the procedure is not available in Cyprus, and for orthopedic procedures among Americans, as the cost of orthopedic procedures in Israel is about half that of in the United States. Israel is a particularly popular destination for people seeking IVF treatments.
Medical tourists in Israel use both public and private hospitals, and all major Israeli hospitals offer medical tourism packages which typically cost far less than comparable procedures than in facilities elsewhere with a similarly high standard of care.
In 2014, it was estimated that roughly 50,000 medical tourists came to Israel annually. There are reports that these medical tourists obtain preferential treatment, to the detriment of local patients. In addition, some people come to Israel to visit health resorts at the Dead Sea and on Lake Kinneret.
Jordan:
Jordan, through their Private Hospitals Association, attracted 250,000 international patients accompanied by more than 500,000 companions in 2012, with total revenues exceeding 1B US$. Jordan won the Medical Destination of the year award in 2014 in the IMTJ Medical Travel Awards.
South Africa:
South Africa is the first country in Africa to emerge as a medical tourism destination.
Tunisia:
On the African scale, Tunisia ranks second in the field of health tourism. It is also named the world's second best thalassotherapy destination, behind France.
United Arab Emirates:
United Arab Emirates, especially Dubai, Abu Dhabi, Ras Al Khaimah is a popular destination for medical tourism. The Dubai Health authority has been spearheading medical tourism into UAE, especially Dubai. However, hospitals providing medical tourism are spread all over the seven emirates.
UAE has the distinction of having the maximum number of JCI accredited hospitals (under various heads). UAE has inbound medical tourism as well as people going out for medical treatment:
- The inbound tourism usually is from African countries like Nigeria, Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, etc.
- The outbound can be categorised into two segments - the local population (citizens of UAE) and the expats. The locals prefer to go to European destinations like the U.K., Germany etc.
The expats prefer to go back to their home countries for treatment.
Americas:
Brazil:
In Brazil, Albert Einstein Hospital in São Paulo was the first JCI-accredited facility outside of the US, and more than a dozen Brazilian medical facilities have since been similarly accredited.
Canada:
In comparison to US health costs, patients can save 30 to 60 percent on health costs in Canada.
In the early 1990s, Americans illegally using counterfeit, borrowed, or fraudulently obtained Canadian health insurance cards to obtain free healthcare in Canada became a serious issue due to the high costs it imposed.
Costa Rica:
In Costa Rica, there are two Joint Commission International accredited (JCI) hospitals. Both are in San Jose, Costa Rica. When the World Health Organization (WHO) ranked the world's health systems in the year 2000, Costa Rica was ranked as no. 26, which was higher than the US, and together with Dominica it dominated the list amongst the Central American countries.
The Deloitte Center for Health Solutions in 2008 reported a cost savings average of between 30 and 70 percent of US prices. In 2019 a knee operation in Clinica Biblica which would have cost around $44,000 in the USA cost $12,200.
Cayman Islands:
Main article: Health City Cayman Islands
Cuba:
Main article: Health care in Cuba § Health tourism and pharmaceutics
Mexico:
Mexico has 98 hospitals accredited by the country's Federal Health Ministry and seven hospitals which are JCI-accredited. Mexico is most reputed for advanced care in dentistry and cosmetic surgery.
In recent years, Los Algodones, Baja California, a settlement of fewer than 6,000 people located on the US border near Yuma, Arizona, has become a major destination for Americans and Canadians seeking dental services. Roughly 600 dentists practice in the community, catering mainly to tourists, leading the community to be nicknamed "Molar City".
United States:
Main article: Health care in the United States
A 2015 report from the United States International Trade Commission found that between 150,000 and 320,000 medical tourists from the United States were traveling worldwide for the purpose of receiving in-patient medical care.
Some have estimated that 750,000 American medical tourists traveled from the United States to other countries in 2007 (up from 500,000 in 2006), according to the McKinsey report, based on:
- 45% of North American medical tourists travel to Asia,
- 26% go to Latin America,
- 2% go to the Middle East,
- and 27% travel to another country in North America.
- None travel to Europe.
The availability of advanced medical technology and sophisticated training of physicians are cited as driving motivators for growth in foreigners traveling to the US for medical care, whereas the low costs for hospital stays and major/complex procedures at Western-accredited medical facilities abroad are cited as major motivators for American travelers.
Also, the decline in value of the US dollar between 2007 and 2013 used to offer additional incentives for foreign travel to the US, although cost differences between the US and many locations in Asia are larger than any currency fluctuations.
Several major medical centers and teaching hospitals offer international patient centers that cater to patients from foreign countries who seek medical treatment in the US. Many of these organizations offer service coordinators to assist international patients with arrangements for medical care, accommodations, finances and transportation including air ambulance services.
Asia and the Pacific Islands:
China:
Main article: Healthcare in China
Ctrip's 2016 Online Medical Tourism Report indicates that the number of travelers who enroll in the oversea medical tourism through its platform increased fivefold over the previous year, and more than 500,000 Chinese visitors are expected to go on medical tourism.
The top ten medical tourism destinations by Chinese are:
- Japan,
- Korea,
- the US,
- Taiwan,
- Germany,
- Singapore,
- Malaysia,
- Sweden,
- Thailand,
- and India.
Regular health checks made up the majority share of Chinese medical tourism in 2016, representing over 50% of all medical tourism trips for tourists originating in China.
Hong Kong:
All twelve of Hong Kong's private hospitals have been surveyed and accredited by the UK's Trent Accreditation Scheme since early 2001.
India:
Main article: Medical tourism in India
Medical tourism is a growing sector in India. India is becoming the 2nd medical tourism destination after Thailand.
Gurgaon is India's largest Medical Tourism hub, followed by Chennai, which is regarded as "India's Health City" as it attracts 45% of health tourists visiting India and 40% of domestic health tourists.
India's medical tourism sector was expected to experience an annual growth rate of 30% from 2012, making it a $2 billion industry by 2015.
In August 2019, the Indian government made it easier for foreigners to receive medical treatment without necessarily applying for a medical visa. These initiatives by Indian government will help Medical Tourism market to reach around $9 Billion in 2020.
Furthermore, the major reason for foreign tourist to choose India is because it has 40 hospitals accredited by the US Joint Commission.
As medical treatment costs in the developed world balloon—with the United States leading the way—more and more Westerners are finding the prospect of international travel for medical care increasingly appealing. An estimated 150,000 of these travel to India for low-priced healthcare procedures every year. India is increasingly becoming popular with Africans seeking medical treatment overseas.
Treatments are approved by the World Health Organization (WHO) and the US Food and Drug Administration.
The Government has also started various initiative that can be of great push to help international patients get the right kind of treatment at affordable prices. As per the studies the rise in Medical tourism in India will be on an increasing trajectory.
Malaysia:
Main article: Medical tourism in Malaysia
The majority of the foreign patients seeking medical treatments in Malaysia are from Indonesia, with smaller numbers of foreign patients coming from India, Singapore, Japan, Australia, Europe, the US and the Middle East.
In 2008, Indonesians comprised 75% of all foreign patients receiving care in Malaysia; Europeans, 3%; Japanese, 3%; Singaporeans, 1% and citizens from Middle Eastern countries, 1%.
By 2011, Indonesians comprised 57% of all foreign patients in Malaysia as the number of patients of other nationalities grew.
Health insurance companies in Singapore have recently permitted their policyholders to be treated in Malaysia where services are cheaper than in Singapore.
New Zealand:
Main article: Health care in New Zealand
In 2008, it was estimated that on average New Zealand's surgical costs are around 15 to 20% the cost of the same surgical procedure in the USA.
Pakistan:
Main article: Medical tourism in Pakistan
Pakistan has four Joint Commission International (JCI) accredited hospitals in Pakistan. Mostly people travel for treatments in Pakistan from:
Singapore:
Singapore has a dozen hospitals and health centers with JCI accreditation.[107] In 2013 medical expenditure generated from medical tourists, mostly from more complex medical procedures, such as heart surgery, was S$832 million, a decline of 25 percent from 2012's S$1.11 billion, as the hospitals faced more competition from neighbouring countries for less complex work.
Thailand:
Main articles:
Foreigners seeking treatment for everything from open-heart surgery to fertility treatments have made Thailand and its accredited hospitals a popular destination for medical tourism, attracting an estimated 2.81 million patients in 2015, up 10.2 percent.
In 2013, medical tourists spent as much as US$4.7 billion, according to government statistics.
As of 2019, with 64 accredited hospitals, Thailand is currently among the top 10 medical tourism destinations in the world. In 2017, Thailand registered 3.3 million visits by foreigners seeking specialised medical treatment. In 2018, this number grew to 3.5 million.
Europe:
Even within Europe, although therapy protocols might be approved by the European Medicines Agency (EMA), several countries have their own review organizations in order to evaluate whether the same therapy protocol would be "cost-effective", so that patients face differences in the therapy protocols, particularly in the access of these drugs, which might be partially explained by the financial strength of the particular Health System.
In 2006, it was ruled that under the conditions of the E112 European health scheme, UK health authorities had to pay the bill if one of their patients could establish urgent medical reasons for seeking quicker treatment in another European union country.
The European directive on the application of patients' rights to cross-border healthcare was agreed in 2011.
An online survey of EU migrants, mostly from Poland, Hungary and Romania, in the UK by the Centre for Population Change in 2019 showed that 46% of them preferred the health system in their country of origin. Only 36% preferred NHS medical treatment, and fewer among those from Western Europe.
Azerbaijan:
Azerbaijan is a target of health tourists from Iran, Turkey, Georgia and Russia. The Bona Dea International Hospital in Baku was built in 2018 to attract international patients, and has staff from various European countries.[115]
Croatia:
Croatia has some claims to be the oldest health tourism destination in Europe, as the Hygienic Association of Hvar was founded in 1868.
Finland:
On December 9, 2013, the City of Helsinki decided that all minors under the age of 18 and all pregnant mothers living in Helsinki without a valid visa or residence permit are granted the right to the same health care and at the same price as all citizens of the city. This service will be available sometime early year 2014.
Volunteer doctors of Global Clinic have tried to help these people, for whom only acute care has been available. This means that the Finnish health care system is open for all people coming outside of the European Union.
France:
British NHS patients have been offered treatment in France to reduce waiting lists for hip, knee and cataract surgery since 2002. France is a popular tourist destination but also ranked the world's leading health care system by the World Health Organization. European Court of Justice said that National Health Service (England) has to pay back British patients.
The number of patients is growing, and in 2016, France scored # 7 in the Medical Tourism Index.
Germany:
In 2017 there were said to be around 250,000 foreign patients who brought more than 1.2 billion euros income to German hospitals. Some were visitors who fell ill unexpectedly, but it is estimated that more than 40 percent came for planned treatment, the majority from Poland, the Netherlands or France.
There have long been medical tourists from the Middle East. University hospitals and the large municipal clinics, such as University Hospital Freiburg or Vivantes in Berlin, are the most popular destinations. Some require payment in full before they start treatment.
The Hallwang Clinic GmbH is said to be the most high-profile clinic in the European private cancer industry, centred in Germany, which attracts patients from the US, the UK, Australia and the Middle East, offering a variety of different treatments, some of which do not appear to be evidence based; the clinic has been accused of selling false hope.
Greece:
Greece starts playing a major role in the field of medical tourism worldwide; while it has always been a notable tourist destination, improvements in healthcare services and medical professionals' training account expanding Greece as a destination for international patients.
Hungary:
During the Goulash Communism era, Germans and Austrian tourists in Hungary also began visiting dentists.
As of 2015 Mosonmagyaróvár had about 350 dental clinics, more per capita than anywhere else on Earth. Prices for dental procedures are one third to one half of the price in Vienna, Austria, 60 km (37 mi) away, and one quarter that of Switzerland or Denmark.
An Austrian can be treated during a day trip, or also have a vacation in the area for the price of one or two nights in a Vienna hotel.
Lithuania:
Health Tourism Lithuania, a booking agent, was established in 2018, focusing on the Scandinavian market, but in 2019 in response to longer waiting lists in the NHS noticed an increase in enquiries about hip replacements, in addition to the existing interest in cosmetic surgery and dentistry from Britons.
A hip replacement costs £3,340, about a third of the price of a commercial procedure in the UK.
Russia:
In his address to the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation dated March 1, 2018, Russian President Vladimir Putin stressed the need to develop health care and export services in the field of medicine and tourism.
In accordance with the decree of the President of the Russian Federation of May 7, 2018 No. 204 "on national goals and strategic objectives of the development of the Russian Federation for the period up to 2024" the volume of exports of medical services by 2024 will have to be $1 billion per year.
RAMT in order to implement the Decree of the President of the Russian Federation of 7 May 2018 No. 204, the Federal non-profit organization Russian Association of Medical Tourism was established.
Serbia:
Serbia has a variety of clinics catering to medical tourists in areas of cosmetic surgery, dental care, fertility treatment and weight loss procedures. The country is also a major international hub for gender reassignment surgery.
Turkey:
The cost of medical recourses in Turkey is quite affordable compared to Western European countries. Therefore, thousands of people each year travel to Turkey for their medical treatments. Turkey is especially becoming a hub for hair transplant surgery. Almost 178,000 tourists visited for health purposes in the first six months of 2018. 67% used private hospital, 24% public hospitals and 9% university hospitals.
The Regulation on International Health Tourism and Tourist Health came into force on 13 July 2017. It only applies to those coming specifically for treatment. USHAŞ was established in 2019 by Turkish Ministry of Health to promote and regulate medical tourism inTurkey.
United Kingdom:
Both the publicly owned National Health Service and private hospitals attracts medical tourism. Many private hospitals and clinics in the United Kingdom are medical tourism destinations.
UK private hospitals have mandatory registration with the UK's watchdog, the Care Quality Commission). The vast majority of medical tourism in the UK is attracted to London where there are 25 private hospitals and clinics and 12 private patient units run by NHS hospital trusts.
In 2017 there was a 3% decline in the £1.55 billion market because of fewer clients from the Middle East. Overseas patients coming to London are particularly likely to be seeking complex cancer, neurosciences, cardiovascular and paediatric services supported by strong clinical expertise reflected by the leading teaching hospitals based in the UK.
Income for NHS providers rose by 9% in 2018–9, pushing the Royal Marsden nearer the 50% statutory limit.
Abuse in the UK: It is alleged that health tourists in the UK often target the NHS for its free-at-the-point-of-care treatment, allegedly costing the NHS up to £200 million. A study in 2013 concluded that the UK was a net exporter of medical tourists, with 63,000 UK residents travelling abroad for treatment and about 52,000 patients getting treatment in UK.
Medical tourists treated as private patients by NHS trusts are more profitable than UK private patients, yielding close to a quarter of the revenue from only seven percent of volume of cases. UK dental patients largely go to Hungary and Poland. Fertility tourists mostly travel to Eastern Europe, Cyprus and Spain.
In the summer of 2015 immigration officers from the Border Force were stationed in St George's University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust to train staff to identify "potentially chargeable patients".
In October 2016 the trust announced that it planned to require photo identity papers or proof of their right to remain in the UK such as asylum status or a visa for pregnant women. Those not able to provide satisfactory documents would be sent to the trust's overseas patient team "for specialist document screening, in liaison with the UK Border Agency and the Home Office."
It was estimated that £4.6 million a year was spent on care for ineligible patients. A pilot scheme to check whether patients were entitled to free NHS care in 18 NHS trusts, 11 in London, for two months in 2017 asked 8,894 people for two forms of ID prior to non-emergency care. Only 50 were not eligible for free NHS treatment. Campaigners claimed this was "part of the Government's hostile environment policy", and that in Newham hospital "you will see huge signs saying you may not be eligible for free NHS treatment".
The bills issued to patients thought to be ineligible far exceed the sums actually collected. Most trusts do not have dedicated staff for the task. Ineligible patients generally live overseas, many have no money, and some demonstrate that they were eligible for free treatment after invoices had been issued.
See also:
- Consumer import of prescription drugs
- Immigration health surcharge
- Wellness tourism
- Yoga tourism
- Businesses May Move Health Care Overseas (Washington Post)
- CBC News on "Medical tourism: Need surgery, will travel"
- A Cut Below: Americans Look Abroad for Health Care (ABC News)
Festivals, including a List of Festivals in the United States
- YouTube Video: Top 10 Best Music Festivals in USA 2024
- YouTube Video: 2023 Epcot International Food & Wine Festival | Our Favorite Booths, Food, and Drinks
- YouTube Video: Mardi Gras 2024: Fat Tuesday brings end to carnival season in New Orleans
Festivals:
A festival is an event celebrated by a community and centering on some characteristic aspect or aspects of that community and its religion or cultures. It is often marked as a local or national holiday, mela, or eid.
A festival constitutes typical cases of glocalization, as well as the high culture-low culture interrelationship. Next to religion and folklore, a significant origin is agricultural. Food is such a vital resource that many festivals are associated with harvest time.
Religious commemoration and thanksgiving for good harvests are blended in events that take place in autumn, such as Halloween in the northern hemisphere and Easter in the southern.
Festivals often serve to fulfill specific communal purposes, especially in regard to commemoration or thanking to the gods, goddesses or saints: they are called patronal festivals. They may also provide entertainment, which was particularly important to local communities before the advent of mass-produced entertainment.
Festivals that focus on cultural or ethnic topics also seek to inform community members of their traditions; the involvement of elders sharing stories and experience provides a means for unity among families. Attendants of festivals are often motivated by a desire for escapism, socialization and camaraderie; the practice has been seen as a means of creating geographical connection, belonging and adaptability.
Etymology
The word "festival" was originally used as an adjective from the late fourteenth century, deriving from Latin via Old French. In Middle English, a "festival dai" was a religious holiday.
The first recorded used of the word "festival" as a noun was in 1589 (as "Festifall"). Feast first came into usage as a noun c. 1200, and its first recorded use as a verb was circa 1300.
The word gala comes from Arabic word khil'a, meaning robe of honor. The word gala was initially used to describe "festive dress", but came to be a synonym of "festival" starting in the 18th century.
History
Festivals have long been significant in human culture and history and are found in virtually all cultures. The importance of festivals, to the present, is found in private and public; secular and religious life. Ancient Greek and Roman societies relied heavily upon festivals, both communal and administrative.
Saturnalia was likely influential to Christmas and Carnival. Celebration of social occasions, religion and nature were common. Specific festivals have century-long histories and festivals in general have developed over the last few centuries – some traditional festivals in Ghana, for example, predate European colonisation of the 15th century. Festivals prospered following the Second World War.
Both established in 1947, Avignon Festival and the Edinburgh Festival Fringe have been notable in shaping the modern model of festivals. Art festivals became more prominent by the turn of the 21st century. In modern times, festivals are commodified as a global tourist prospect although they are commonly public or not-for-profit.
Traditions:
Many festivals have religious origins and entwine cultural and religious significance in traditional activities. The most important religious festivals such as Christmas, Rosh Hashanah, Diwali, Eid-al-Fitr and Eid-al-Adha serve to mark out the year. Others, such as harvest festivals, celebrate seasonal change.
Events of historical significance, such as important military victories or other nation-building events also provide the impetus for a festival. An early example is the festival established by Ancient Egyptian Pharaoh Ramesses III celebrating his victory over the Libyans.
In many countries, royal holidays commemorate dynastic events just as agricultural holidays are about harvests. Festivals are often commemorated annually.
There are numerous types of festivals in the world and most countries celebrate important events or traditions with traditional cultural events and activities. Most culminate in the consumption of specially prepared food (showing the connection to "feasting") and they bring people together. Festivals are also strongly associated with national holidays.
Lists of national festivals are published to make participation easier.
Types of festivals:
The scale of festivals varies; in location and attendance, they may range from a local to national level. Music festivals, for example, often bring together disparate groups of people, such that they are both localised and global. The "vast majority" of festivals are, however, local, modest and populist.
The abundance of festivals significantly hinders quantifying the total there of. There exists significant variation among festivals, beyond binary dichotomies of sacred and secular, rural and urban, people and establishment.
Religious festivals:
Main article: Religious festival
Among many religions, a feast is a set of celebrations in honour of God or gods. A feast and a festival are historically interchangeable.
Most religions have festivals that recur annually and some, such as Passover, Easter and Eid al-Adha are moveable feasts – that is, those that are determined either by lunar or agricultural cycles or the calendar in use at the time.
The Sed festival, for example, celebrated the thirtieth year of an Egyptian pharaoh's rule and then every three (or four in one case) years after that. Among the Ashantis, most of their traditional festivals are linked to gazette sites which are believed to be sacred with several rich biological resources in their pristine forms.
Thus, the annual commemoration of the festivals helps in maintaining the buoyancy of the conserved natural site, assisting in biodiversity conservation.
In the Christian liturgical calendar, there are two principal feasts, properly known as the Feast of the Nativity of our Lord (Christmas) and the Feast of the Resurrection (Easter), but minor festivals in honour of local patron saints are celebrated in almost all countries influenced by Christianity.
In the Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and Anglican liturgical calendars there are a great number of lesser feasts throughout the year commemorating saints, sacred events or doctrines. In the Philippines, each day of the year has at least one specific religious festival, either from Catholic, Islamic, or indigenous origins.
Buddhist religious festivals, such as Esala Perahera are held in Sri Lanka and Thailand. Hindu festivals, such as Holi are very ancient. The Sikh community celebrates the Vaisakhi festival marking the new year and birth of the Khalsa.
A festival is an event celebrated by a community and centering on some characteristic aspect or aspects of that community and its religion or cultures. It is often marked as a local or national holiday, mela, or eid.
A festival constitutes typical cases of glocalization, as well as the high culture-low culture interrelationship. Next to religion and folklore, a significant origin is agricultural. Food is such a vital resource that many festivals are associated with harvest time.
Religious commemoration and thanksgiving for good harvests are blended in events that take place in autumn, such as Halloween in the northern hemisphere and Easter in the southern.
Festivals often serve to fulfill specific communal purposes, especially in regard to commemoration or thanking to the gods, goddesses or saints: they are called patronal festivals. They may also provide entertainment, which was particularly important to local communities before the advent of mass-produced entertainment.
Festivals that focus on cultural or ethnic topics also seek to inform community members of their traditions; the involvement of elders sharing stories and experience provides a means for unity among families. Attendants of festivals are often motivated by a desire for escapism, socialization and camaraderie; the practice has been seen as a means of creating geographical connection, belonging and adaptability.
Etymology
The word "festival" was originally used as an adjective from the late fourteenth century, deriving from Latin via Old French. In Middle English, a "festival dai" was a religious holiday.
The first recorded used of the word "festival" as a noun was in 1589 (as "Festifall"). Feast first came into usage as a noun c. 1200, and its first recorded use as a verb was circa 1300.
The word gala comes from Arabic word khil'a, meaning robe of honor. The word gala was initially used to describe "festive dress", but came to be a synonym of "festival" starting in the 18th century.
History
Festivals have long been significant in human culture and history and are found in virtually all cultures. The importance of festivals, to the present, is found in private and public; secular and religious life. Ancient Greek and Roman societies relied heavily upon festivals, both communal and administrative.
Saturnalia was likely influential to Christmas and Carnival. Celebration of social occasions, religion and nature were common. Specific festivals have century-long histories and festivals in general have developed over the last few centuries – some traditional festivals in Ghana, for example, predate European colonisation of the 15th century. Festivals prospered following the Second World War.
Both established in 1947, Avignon Festival and the Edinburgh Festival Fringe have been notable in shaping the modern model of festivals. Art festivals became more prominent by the turn of the 21st century. In modern times, festivals are commodified as a global tourist prospect although they are commonly public or not-for-profit.
Traditions:
Many festivals have religious origins and entwine cultural and religious significance in traditional activities. The most important religious festivals such as Christmas, Rosh Hashanah, Diwali, Eid-al-Fitr and Eid-al-Adha serve to mark out the year. Others, such as harvest festivals, celebrate seasonal change.
Events of historical significance, such as important military victories or other nation-building events also provide the impetus for a festival. An early example is the festival established by Ancient Egyptian Pharaoh Ramesses III celebrating his victory over the Libyans.
In many countries, royal holidays commemorate dynastic events just as agricultural holidays are about harvests. Festivals are often commemorated annually.
There are numerous types of festivals in the world and most countries celebrate important events or traditions with traditional cultural events and activities. Most culminate in the consumption of specially prepared food (showing the connection to "feasting") and they bring people together. Festivals are also strongly associated with national holidays.
Lists of national festivals are published to make participation easier.
Types of festivals:
The scale of festivals varies; in location and attendance, they may range from a local to national level. Music festivals, for example, often bring together disparate groups of people, such that they are both localised and global. The "vast majority" of festivals are, however, local, modest and populist.
The abundance of festivals significantly hinders quantifying the total there of. There exists significant variation among festivals, beyond binary dichotomies of sacred and secular, rural and urban, people and establishment.
Religious festivals:
Main article: Religious festival
Among many religions, a feast is a set of celebrations in honour of God or gods. A feast and a festival are historically interchangeable.
Most religions have festivals that recur annually and some, such as Passover, Easter and Eid al-Adha are moveable feasts – that is, those that are determined either by lunar or agricultural cycles or the calendar in use at the time.
The Sed festival, for example, celebrated the thirtieth year of an Egyptian pharaoh's rule and then every three (or four in one case) years after that. Among the Ashantis, most of their traditional festivals are linked to gazette sites which are believed to be sacred with several rich biological resources in their pristine forms.
Thus, the annual commemoration of the festivals helps in maintaining the buoyancy of the conserved natural site, assisting in biodiversity conservation.
In the Christian liturgical calendar, there are two principal feasts, properly known as the Feast of the Nativity of our Lord (Christmas) and the Feast of the Resurrection (Easter), but minor festivals in honour of local patron saints are celebrated in almost all countries influenced by Christianity.
In the Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and Anglican liturgical calendars there are a great number of lesser feasts throughout the year commemorating saints, sacred events or doctrines. In the Philippines, each day of the year has at least one specific religious festival, either from Catholic, Islamic, or indigenous origins.
Buddhist religious festivals, such as Esala Perahera are held in Sri Lanka and Thailand. Hindu festivals, such as Holi are very ancient. The Sikh community celebrates the Vaisakhi festival marking the new year and birth of the Khalsa.
Arts festivals:
Main article: Arts festival
Among the many offspring of general arts festivals are also more specific types of festivals, including ones that showcase intellectual or creative achievement such as science festivals, literary festivals and music festivals.
Sub-categories include:
In the Philippines, aside from numerous art festivals scattered throughout the year, February is known as national arts month, the culmination of all art festivals in the entire archipelago.
The modern model of music festivals began in the 1960s-70s and have become a lucrative global industry. Predecessors extend back to the 11th century and some, such as the Three Choirs Festival, remain to this day.
Film festivals involve the screenings of several different films, and are usually held annually. Some of the most significant film festivals include the Berlin International Film Festival, the Venice Film Festival and the Cannes Film Festival.
Arts festivals:
Main article: Arts festival
Among the many offspring of general arts festivals are also more specific types of festivals, including ones that showcase intellectual or creative achievement such as science festivals, literary festivals and music festivals.
Sub-categories include:
- comedy festivals,
- rock festivals,
- jazz festivals and buskers festivals;
- poetry festivals,
- theatre festivals,
- storytelling festivals;
- including re-enactment festivals such as Renaissance fairs.
In the Philippines, aside from numerous art festivals scattered throughout the year, February is known as national arts month, the culmination of all art festivals in the entire archipelago.
The modern model of music festivals began in the 1960s-70s and have become a lucrative global industry. Predecessors extend back to the 11th century and some, such as the Three Choirs Festival, remain to this day.
Film festivals involve the screenings of several different films, and are usually held annually. Some of the most significant film festivals include the Berlin International Film Festival, the Venice Film Festival and the Cannes Film Festival.
Food and Wine/Beef Festivals:
A food festival is an event celebrating food or drink. These often highlight the output of producers from a certain region.
Some food festivals are focused on a particular item of food, such as the National Peanut Festival in the United States, or the Galway International Oyster Festival in Ireland.
There are also specific beverage festivals, such as the famous Oktoberfest in Germany for beer.
Many countries hold festivals to celebrate wine. One example is the global celebration of the arrival of Beaujolais nouveau, which involves shipping the new wine around the world for its release date on the third Thursday of November each year. Both Beaujolais nouveau and the Japanese rice wine sake are associated with harvest time. In the Philippines, there are at least two hundred festivals dedicated to food and drinks.
Seasonal and harvest festivals:
Main article: Food festival
Seasonal festivals, such as Beltane, are determined by the solar and the lunar calendars and by the cycle of the seasons, especially because of its effect on food supply, as a result of which there is a wide range of ancient and modern harvest festivals.
Ancient Egyptians relied upon the seasonal inundation caused by the Nile River, a form of irrigation, which provided fertile land for crops.
In the Alps, in autumn the return of the cattle from the mountain pastures to the stables in the valley is celebrated as Almabtrieb.
A recognized winter festival, the Chinese New Year, is set by the lunar calendar, and celebrated from the day of the second new moon after the winter solstice.
Dree Festival of the Apatanis living in Lower Subansiri District of Arunachal Pradesh is celebrated every year from July 4 to 7 by praying for a bumper crop harvest.
Midsummer or St John's Day, is an example of a seasonal festival, related to the feast day of a Christian saint as well as a celebration of the time of the summer solstice in the northern hemisphere, where it is particularly important in Sweden.
Winter carnivals also provide the opportunity to utilise to celebrate creative or sporting activities requiring snow and ice. In the Philippines, each day of the year has at least one festival dedicated to harvesting of crops, fishes, crustaceans, milk, and other local goods.
Seasonal and harvest festivals:
Main article: Food festival
Seasonal festivals, such as Beltane, are determined by the solar and the lunar calendars and by the cycle of the seasons, especially because of its effect on food supply, as a result of which there is a wide range of ancient and modern harvest festivals.
Ancient Egyptians relied upon the seasonal inundation caused by the Nile River, a form of irrigation, which provided fertile land for crops.
In the Alps, in autumn the return of the cattle from the mountain pastures to the stables in the valley is celebrated as Almabtrieb.
A recognized winter festival, the Chinese New Year, is set by the lunar calendar, and celebrated from the day of the second new moon after the winter solstice.
Dree Festival of the Apatanis living in Lower Subansiri District of Arunachal Pradesh is celebrated every year from July 4 to 7 by praying for a bumper crop harvest.
Midsummer or St John's Day, is an example of a seasonal festival, related to the feast day of a Christian saint as well as a celebration of the time of the summer solstice in the northern hemisphere, where it is particularly important in Sweden.
Winter carnivals also provide the opportunity to utilise to celebrate creative or sporting activities requiring snow and ice. In the Philippines, each day of the year has at least one festival dedicated to harvesting of crops, fishes, crustaceans, milk, and other local goods.
Politics:
Scholarly literature notes that festivals functionally disseminate political values and meaning, such as ownership of place, which undergoes transformation in accordance with the festival.
Furthermore, a festival may act as an artefact which allows citizens to achieve "certain ideals", including those of identity and ideology. Festivals may be used to rehabilitate or elevate the image of a city; the ephemerality of festivals means that their impact is often incorporeal, of name, memory and perception.
In deviating from routine, festivals may reinforce the convention, be it social, cultural or economic.
Study of festivals:
- Festive ecology – explores the relationships between the symbolism and the ecology of the plants, fungi and animals associated with cultural events such as festivals, processions and special occasions.
- Heortology – the study of religious festivals. It was originally only used in respect of Christian festivals, but it now covers all religions, in particular those of Ancient Greece. See list of foods with religious symbolism for some topical overlap.
See also:
- All pages with titles containing Festival
- Convention
- Event planning
- Fair
- Festive ecology
- Holiday
- Lists of festivals
- Outline of festivals
- Patronal festival
- Procession
- Trade show
- Media related to Festivals at Wikimedia Commons
- The dictionary definition of Festival at Wiktionary
___________________________________________________________________________
List of festivals in the United States:
This is an incomplete list of festivals in the United States with articles on Wikipedia, as well as lists of other festival lists, by geographic location.
This list includes festivals of diverse types, among them:
- regional festivals,
- commerce festivals,
- fairs,
- food festivals,
- arts festivals,
- religious festivals,
- folk festivals,
- and recurring festivals on holidays.
Festivals unique to the United States (and Canada and Mexico in some cases) include:
- pow wows,
- Rocky Mountain Rendezvous,
- blues festivals,
- county fairs,
- state fairs,
- ribfests,
- and strawberry festivals.
The first U.S. state fair was that of New York, held in 1841 in Syracuse, and has been held annually to the present year.
The second state fair was in Detroit, Michigan, which started in 1849.
Click on any of the following blue hyperlinks for its designated Festival List: